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Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
Cumminas  School  of  Veterinarv  Mftdlnlnfi  at 


JOHNA.SEAVERNS 


HORSE-SHOEING 


Frontispiece,] 


A  HANDBOOK  OF 

HORSE- SHOEING 

WITH 

INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTERS 
ON  THE  ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE 

HORSE'S  FOOT 


BY 

JNO.  A.  W.  DOLLAE,  M.E.C.V.S. 

EDITOR  AND  TRANSLATOR  OF  MOLLER'S  "VETERINARY  SURGERY." 
AUTHOR  OF  "an  ATLAS  OF  VETERINARY  SURGICAL   OPERATIONS,"  ETC. 


WITH  THE  COLLABORATION  OF 


ALBEKT  WHEATLEY,  RKC.V.S. 


New  York  : 
WILLIAM  R.  JENKINS, 

VETERINARY  PUBLISHER  AND  BOOKSELLER, 
851  AND  853  Sixth  Avenue. 

1898. 


h 


Copyright,  1898,  by  William  R.  Jenkins. 


All  Rights  Reserved. 


PREFACE. 

The  friendly  reception  accorded  to  previous  efforts  encouraged 
the  hope  that  a  vohime  dealing  with  that  less  studied  though 
scarcely  less  useful  subject,  Horse-shoeing,  might  fiud  similar 
acceptance.  To  provide  material,  all  the  best  known  German, 
French,  and  Italian  treatises  have  been  ransacked,  the  leading 
English  works  referred  to,  and  the  information  thus  gained 
collated.  Without  any  intention  of  disparaging  the  labors  of 
other  authors,  the  writer  feels  bound  to  confess  that  he  has 
found  no  work  of  more  practical  and  scientific  value  than 
Leisering-Hartmann's  masterly  Handbook,  "  Der  Fuss  des 
Pferdes;"  which,  though  in  a  much  modified  form,  and  with 
the  addition  of  a.  large  amount  of  new  matter,  has  been  adopted 
as  ther  model  and  substantial  basis  for  the  present  volume. 
Other  sources  of  information  are  indicated  in  the  Bibliography 
hereto  attached. 

The  first  nineteen  pages,  on  the  history  of  Horse-shoeing, 
have  been  translated,  with  little  alteration,  from  Leisering- 
Hartmann.  In  the  section  devoted  to  the  Anatomy  of  the 
Foot,  Professor  Mettam  has  kindly  contributed  pages  61  to  65, 
and  fig.  66  on  page  106.  The  part  dealing  with  practical 
Horse-shoeing  has  been  almost  entirely  re-written,  while  many 
additions  drawn  from  the  write'r's  own  experience  or  from 
Continental  literature  have  been  made  in  order  to  adapt  the 
book  to  the  requirements  of  English  readers. 

To  Mr.  Albert  Wheatley  is  due  one  of  the  chief  features  of 
the  book,  viz.,  the  large-sized  blocks  of  horse-shoes  printed  on 
separate   sheets,   and   the   descriptions   accompanying  them. 


VI  PREFACE. 

The  engraving  of  these  has  occupied  considerably  longer  time 
than  was  at  first  anticipated,  but  the  important  character  of 
the  added  matter  fully  compensates  for  any  delay,  and  must  be 
held  as  largely  contributing  to  whatever  degree  of  success  the 
book  may  eventually  attain.  To  the  pains  Mr.  Wheatley  has 
taken  in  superintending  the  preparation  of  both  shoes  and 
illustrations,  the  enthusiasm  he  has  exhibited  in  the  work  now 
completed,  and  the  personal  kindness  he  has  at  all  times 
shown,  the  writer  cordially  testifies. 

Messrs.  Schonefeld  of  Dresden  have  kindly  permitted  the 
use  of  the  majority  of  the  wood-cuts,  and  Messrs.  Phipson  & 
Warden,  iron  merchants,  etc.,  Birmingham,  have  accorded  a 
similar  privilege  in  respect  of  the  illustrations  marked  with 
an  asterisk. 

To  Professor  M'Queen,  of  the  Boyal  Veterinary  College, 
London,  who  rendered  such  valued  service  during  the  publi- 
cation of  the  work  on  Veterinary  Surgery,  the  writer  has  once 
more  the  sincere  pleasure  of  tendering  his  thanks,  and  of 
gratefully  acknowledging  how  much  he  owes  to  that  gentle- 
man's kindly  encouragement  and  assistance  in  revising  proof- 
sheets  during  the  two  years  devoted  to  this  later  task. 

JNO.  A.  W.  DOLLAE. 

London,  October,  1897. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction, 
History, 


PAGE 
1 

2 


PART  I.— THE  STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  FOOT. 


Section  I. — The  Structure  of  the  Foot. 

General  Remarks  on  the  Horse's  Foot, 

Chapter  I.    The  bones  of  the  foot,     .  .  . 

1.  The  lower  end  of  the  great  metacarpus, 

2.  The  suffraginis  bone  or  first  phalanx, 

3.  The  two  sesamoid  bones, 

4.  The  coronet  bone  or  second  phalanx, 

5.  The  pedal  bone  or  third  phalanx, 

6.  The  navicular  bone,        .... 

Chapter  II.     The  ligamentous  structures  of  the  foot, 

1.  The  fetlock  joint,  .... 

2.  The  pastern  joint,  .... 

3.  The  pedal  or  coffin  joint. 

Chapter  III.    The  locomotor  apparatus  of  the  foot, 

1.  The  extensor  pedis  tendon, 

2.  The  flexor  pedis  perforatus  tendon,     . 

3.  The  flexor  pedis  perforans  tendon. 

Chapter  IV.    The  elastic  tissues  of  the  foot, 

1.  The  lateral  cartilages, 

2.  The  plantar  cushion,      .... 

Chapter  V.    The  blood-vessels  and  nerves  of  the  foot, 

A.  Blood-vessels,     ..... 

1.  The  arteries,         .... 

2.  The  veins,  .... 

B.  The  nerves,         .  .  .    '       . 

Chapter  VI.     The  protective  structures  of  the  foot, 
A.  The  horn-secreting  structures, 

1.  The  perioplic  ring, 

2.  The  coronary  band, 

3.  The  sensitive  laminae, 

4.  The  sensitive  sole, 

5.  The  sensitive  frog, 


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73 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


B.  The  horny  structures, 

1.  The  horny  wall,  .... 

2.  "The  horny  sole,  .... 

3.  The  horny  frog,  . 

Section  II.— The  Functions  of  the  Foot. 

Chapter  I,    Histology  of  horn, 

Chapter  II.    The  growth  of  the  hoof. 

Chapter  III.    The  mechanical  functions  of  the  foot, 
Changes  in  form  of  the  hoof. 
Bearing  of  the  above  on  practical  shoeing. 


PAGE 

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74 
84 
88 

90 

93 

101 

111 
115 
137 


PART  II.— THE  HORSE'S  FOOT  IN  'RELATION  TO  SHOEING. 


Section  I.— Shoeing  of  Healthy  Feet. 

Chapter  I.    Horse-shoes,  etc., 

1.  Material  for  the  manufacture  of  shoes, 

2.  Shoes  and  their  properties, 

3.  Forging  the  shoe, 

4.  Varieties  of  shoes, 

Chapter  II.    Winter  shoeing, 

1.  Rough  nailing, 

2.  Roughing  by  means  of  sharp  heels  and  toes, 

3.  Roughing  with  screws, 

4.  Cogs,         ..... 

5.  Shoes  with  removable  toe-grips, 


129 
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146 

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156 
158 
164 
167 


Section  II. 

Chapter  I.    The  foot  in  its  relation  to  the  entire  limb, 

1.  Conformation  of  the  limbs, 

2.  General  conformation  of  the  feet,  when  viewed  from  in 

front,  behind  and  the  side,     . 

3.  The  method  of  advancing  the  hoof, 

4.  Form  of  the  hoof, 

5.  Characteristics  of  the  sound  hoof, 

6.  Wear  of  the  hoof  and  of  the  shoe. 

Chapter  II.     The  practice  of  shoeing, 

1.  Management  and  control  of  the  horse, 

2.  Determining  the  style  of  shoeing,        .     ' 

3.  Removal  of  the  old  shoes, 

4.  Preparation  of  the  hoof  for  shoeing,   . 

5.  Working  without  shoes, 

6.  General  principles  to  be  observed  in  the  choice  of  the  shoe 

7.  Choice  of  the  shoe  for  specific  uses,    .  ,  .  . 


171 
171 

178 
182 
185 
191 
192 

196 
196 
199 
201 
202 

r:3 

210 
217 


CONTENTS. 


IS 


(1)  Hacks.         .  .  .  c  .  c 
Special  shoes  for  hacks,   .... 

Fullered  fore  shoe,        .... 
Fullered  seated  fore  shoe  with  thick  heels,  . 

(2)  Hunters,     ,  .  s  .  ,  , 

Temporary  shoes,  .... 

Special  shoes  for  hunters, 
Fullered  seated  fore  shoe, 

Concave  partially-fullered  "dub-toed"  fore  shoe. 
Concave  fullered,  feather-edge  fore  shoe, 
Stamped  fore  shoe,        .... 
Concave  partially-fullered  hind  shoe. 
Concave  partially-fullered  hind  shoe, 
Concave  partially-fullered  hind  shoe, 
Charlier  hind  shoe,        .  »  ,  . 

(3)  Race  horses,  .  .  t  .  . 

Racing  plate  (fore),        .... 
Concave  fullered  fore  shoe  (for  steeplechasing), 

(4)  Trotting  horses,     .  ,  ,  .  . 

Partially  fullered  fore  shoe  (for  trotters), 

(5)  Carriage  horses,     ..... 
Special  shoes  for  carriage  horses,  .  ,. 

Fullered  fore  shoe,  seated  and  tapped  for  screws, 
*'  Rod  way  "  fore  shoe. 
Thin  heeled  fullered  seated  fore  shoe, 
Fullered  fore  shoe  (dished  on  ground  surface), 

(6)  Omnibus  horses,     .  .  ,  ,  , 
Special  shoes  for  omnibus  work,             , 

Stamped  hind  shoe  (for  omnibus  work),  with  two 
calkins,  ..... 

Stamped  hind  shoe  (for  omnibus  work), with  calkin 
and  wedge  heel,  .... 

Stamped  fore  shoe  for  omnibus  work, 

(7)  Cart  horses,  ..... 
Special  shoes  for  cart  horses, 

Cart  liorse  hind  shoe  for  town  work, 
Cart  horse  stamped  fore  shoe  for  show  purposes, 
Cart  horse  stamped  hind  shoe  for  show  purposes, 
"North  country  "  stamped  fore  shoe, 
**  North  country  "  stamped  hind  shoe, 
Stamped  fore  shoe  for  farm  work,       , 
Stamped  hind  shoe  for  farm  work,     . 
Stamped  fore  shoe  for  railway  shunting  horses, 
Stamped  hind  shoe  for  railway  shunting, 

(8)  The  Charlier  shoe,  .... 

(9)  Tips.  .  .  .  ,  o 

(10)  Sir  F.  Fitzwygram's  shoe,  ,  ,  , 


PAGE 

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260 


CONTENTS. 


(11)  The  Turkish  or  Oriental  shoe,     ,  « 

(12)  Special  grooved  shoes  with  rope  inlaid, 

8.  Changing  from  one  style  of  shoeing  to  another, 

9.  The  shape  and  fitting^of  the  shoe, 

10.  The  nails,  ..... 

11.  Nailing  on  the  shoe,        .... 

12.  Examination  of  the  horse  after  shoeing, 

13.  Disadvantages  of  shoeing, 

14    Effects  upon  hoofs  and  limbs  j^roduced  by  work  on 
especially  stone  paved,  streets. 


paved 


Chapter  III.     Forging  and  cutting. 

1.  Forging, 

Special  shoes  for  horses  that  forge. 
Fullered  hind  shoe  for  harness  horse  which  forges  and 

wears  wall  of  hind  foot,  .... 
Diamond-toed  fullered  hind  shoe  for  harness  horse. 
Diamond-toed  hind  shoe  with  "  toe-spur"  for  harness 

horse  which  forges  and  wears  wall  of  hind  foot, 

2.  Cutting  or  striking,        ..... 

Special  shoes  for  horses  that  cut, 
Fullered  feather-edged  hind  shoe  {with  two  calkins), 
Feather-edged  stamped  hind  shoe    (with    two    nails 

inside  toe),     ..... 
Partially  feather-edged  fullered  hind  shoe. 
Partially-fullered  feather-edged  hind  shoe. 
Fullered  hind  shoe,  "  set"  inside,  . 
Fullered  seated  feather-edged  fore  shoe  for  harness  or 

riding  horse,  ..... 

Fullered  seated  feather-edged  fore  shoe,  ' 
Fultered  feather-edged  concave  fore  shoe, 
Fullered  hind  shoe  for  hack. 

Concave  feather-edged  hind  shoe  partially  fullered. 
Concave  partially-fullered  feather-edged  hind  shoe, 
Feather-edged  fullered  concave  fore  shoe, 
Concave  three-quarter  hind  shoe. 
Three-quarter  partially  fullered  hind  shoe, 

Chapter  IV.     Leather  and  rubber  soles,  etc., 

1.  Leather  soles,       ...... 

2.  Rubber  pads  on  leather,  .... 

3.  Downie  &  Harris's  rubber  pad  with  frog  cleft, 

4.  Hartmann's  removable  rubber  pad,    . 

5.  Rope  pads  (fixed) , 

6.  Straw  pads, 

7.  Cork  pads, 

8.  Felt  pads, 

9.  Pads  of  elastic  cement, 

Chapter  V.    The  shoeing  of  mules  and  asses, 


PAGE 

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310" 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


Chapter  VI.     Care  of  the  hoof, 

(a)  Treatment  of  unshod  hoofs, 
(6)  Care  of  the  shod  hoof, 


PAGE 

312 
312 
318 


Section  III. — The  Shoeing  of  Diseased  Feet  and  of  Lame  Horses. 


'  quoit ' '  shoe 
around  outer 


the  coronet  or 


Chapter  I.     Inflammation  within  the  hoof, 
Concave  bar  fore  shoe, 

Fullered  bar  hind  shoe  (seated  around  toe) , 
Fullered  seated  bar  fore  shoe, 
Fullered  seated  three-quarter  bar  fore  shoe  (for  harness  horse) 
Stamped  bar  hind  shoe  (for  cart  horse), 
Substitutes  for  horn. 

Chapter  II.     Deformities  and  diseases  of  the  hoof 

1.  Flat  sole,  .... 

Stamped  fore  shoe  (for  cart  horse).    The  ' 
Stamped  fore  shoe  (for  cart  horse)  ' '  set ' 

margin,       .... 
Stamped  hind  shoe  (for  cart  horse), 

2.  Upright  hoof,      .... 

Stamped  cart  hind  shoe,  with  toe-piece, 

3.  Special  shoes  for  horses  knuckled  over  at 

fetlock,  ..... 

4.  Contracted  foot, 

A.  Methods  of  re-establishing  the  counter-pressure  of  the 

ground ,  or  compensating  for  its  absence 

B.  Mechanical  methods. 

Fullered  fore  shoe  (for  harness  horse)  with  frog  plate 
Tip  for  producing  frog  pressure. 

Professor  F.   Smith's  fore  shoe  for  expanding  con 
tr acted  feet,        ..... 

C.  Operative  interference  in  contraction,    . 

5.  The  laterally  distorted  hoof,     .... 

6.  The  curved  hoof,  ..... 

Chapter  III.     Solutions  of  continuity  in  the  horn, 

1.  Sand  cracks,        .  .... 

(a)  Sand  crack  origirating  at  the  coronary  margin, 

(b)  Sand  crack  of  the  bars,    .... 

2.  Transverse  cracks  of  the  wall, 

3.  Loose  wall,  seedy  toe,  etc.,       .    '       . 

4.  Thrush,     ....... 

Chapter  IV.    Inflammation  of  the  structures  enclosed   by  the 
hoof,     .... 

1.  Pricks  in  shoeing, 

2.  Picked-up  nails. 

Stamped  cart  fore  shoe  (surgical)  with  arrangement  for 
dressing  foot,         ...... 


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375 

378 
379 
381 

383 


Xll 


CONTENTS. 


Stamped  cart  hind  shoe  (surgical)  with  arrangement  for 
dressing  foot,         ..... 

Plates  for  surgical  shoes,     .... 

Stamped  cart  hind  shoe  (surgical)  with  arrangement  for 
dressing  foot,  ..... 

Stamped  cart  hind  shoe  (surgical)  with  arrangement  for 
dressing  foot,  ..... 

3.  Treads  on  the  coronet,   ..... 

4.  Inflammation  of  the  perioplic  ring,     . 

o.  v^ornSj       ...••.. 
Three-quarter  fullered  seated  fore  shoe,  . 
Fullered  fore  shoe  "set"  on  ground  surface  of  inside  heel 

6.  Shoeing  after  laminitis,  .... 

7.  Keratomata,  or  horn  tumorg, 

8.  Canker  of  the  frog  or  sole,        .... 

9.  Ossification  of  the  lateral  cartilages.     Side  bones,   . 

10.  Navicular  disease,  ..... 

11.  Curb,  strain  of  flexor  tendons,  and  capped  elbow,  . 

Stamped  wedge-heeled  hind  shoe. 
Fullered  wedge-heeled  hind  shoe  for  harness  horse, 
Fullered  patten  hind  shoe,  .... 
Stamped  patten  (or  "  staple  ")  fore  shoe, 
Stamped  patten  (or  "staple  ")  hind  shoe, 
Patten  hind  shoe,      ..... 
Fullered  seated  fore  shoe,   .... 


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APPENDIX  A.— THE  SHOEING  OF  OXEN. 

Chapter  I.    The  structure  and  functions  of  the  ox's  foot, 
Chapter  II,    The  shoeing  of  oxen,    .... 


415 
433 


APPENDIX  B. 


I.  Farriers'  teaching  schools, 
II.  Shoeing  competitions,    . 


437 
439 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Frontispiece. 


FIG. 

Berkshire  County  Council's  Sclioool, 

1.  Iron  hipposandal, 

2.  Celtic  shoe,    .... 

3.  Shoe  from  the  grave  of  Childeric, 

4.  5.  The  most  ancient  Northern  shoe, 
6,  7,  8.  Shoes  of  the  Middle  Ages,     . 
9.  Postero-lateral  view  of  right  fore  foot, 

10.  Perpendicular  mesial  section  of  right  fore  foot, 
Colored  plate.    Section  of  horse's  foot, 

11.  Antero-lateral  view  of  bones  of  foot, 

12.  Pastern  and  sesamoidal  bones, 

13.  Posterior  view  of  pastern  and  sesamoid  bones, 

14.  Antero-lateral  view  of  coronet  bone, 

15.  Posterior  view  of  coronet  bone, 
Plate.     The  bones  of  the  foot, 

16.  Antero-lateral  view  of  pedal  bone, 

17.  Postero-lateral  view  of  pedal  bone, 

18.  Inferior  surface  of  pedal  bone, 

19.  Antero-superior  surface  of  navicular  bone, 

20.  Postero-inferior  surface  of  navicular  bone, 

21.  The  bones  of  the  foot  and  their  ligaments  viewed  from  the 

22.  23.  The  bones  of  the  foot  and  their  ligaments  viewed  from 

behind,      ........ 

24.  Pedal  bone,  etc.,      ....... 

25.  Antero -external  view  of  right  fore  foot, 

26.  Posterior  view  of  right  fore-foot,  .  .  .  . 

27.  Right  fore-foot  seen  from  behind  and  slightly  from  one  side, 

28.  Pedal  bone,  etc.,      ....... 

29.  Right  fore  foot,         ....... 

30.  Postero-lateral  view  of  pedal  bone  and  inner  lateral  cartilage, 

31.  Infero-posterior  view  of  right  fore  foot, 

32.  Plantar  cushion  seen  from  below,  .  .  .  . 

33.  Plantar  cushion  seen  from  above,     '        .  .  ,  . 

34.  Vertical  mesial  section  of  plantar  cushion, 

35.  Vertical  section  of  foot  from  side  to  side, 

36.  Lateral  view  of  fore  foot,  .  .  .  .  . 

37.  Foot,  seen  from  below  and  behind,  .  .  .  , 

38.  Right  fore  foot,  seen  from  below,  behind,  and  somewhat  from 

one  side,    ........ 

39.  Vertical  section  through  tlie  human  nail  and  nail-bed, 


PAGE 


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9 

10 

.  12,  13 

21 

22 

facing  22 
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facing  18 
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31 


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56 

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XIV 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. 

40.  Foot  deprived  of  horny  capsule,  ..... 
4L  Foot  from  which  the  outer  portion  of  the  horny  wall  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  sensitive  structures  have  been  removed, 
42.  Horn-secreting  papillae  from  the  coronary  band, 
48.  Lower  surface  of  foot  denuded  of  horny  capsule, 

44.  Hoof  with  vascular  structures  removed, 

45.  Under  surface  of  right  fore  foot, 

46.  Under  surface  of  right  hind  foot, 

47.  Mesial  vertical  section  of  hoof  with  horny  frog  removed, 

48.  Hoof  with  portion  of  wall  removed, 

49.  Portion  of  inner  surface  of  hoof  where  horny  wall  and  horny 

sole  join,  ..... 

50.  Transverse  incision  through  the  laminal  sheath, 

51.  Vertical  transverse  section  of  hoof  with  very  thin  sole 

52.  Left  lower  part  of  above  section , 

53.  Vertical  section  from  sole  (magnified),     . 

54.  Horny  frog  removed  from  hoof,    . 

55.  Vertical  mesial  section  of  horny  frog, 

56.  Perpendicular  section  from  horn  of  wall  (magnified), 

57.  Horizontal  section  of  wall, 

58.  Horizontal  section  through  a  part  of  the  wall',    . 

59.  Horn  cells  from  wall,  etc., 

60.  Horn  cells  from  sole,  etc. ,  ... 

61.  Horn  cells  from  the  perioplic  ring, 

62.  Horn  cells  from  the  frog,    .... 

63.  Cells  from  horn  lamina,       .... 

64.  Horizontal  section  of  a  fragment  of  cast  horn  from  sole, 

65.  Perpendicular  section  of  horn  frog, 

66.  Horizontal  section  of  horny  lamina,  etc., 

67.  Cross  section  of  the  connecting  sheath  of  the  wall, 

68.  Transverse  section  of  two  horn  laminae  still  connected  with 

the  middle  sheath  of  the  wall, 

69.  Vertical  cross  section  of  a  foot  seen  from  behind 

70.  Vertical  cross  section  of  foot  seen  from  behind, 

71.  72.  Right  fore  foot  seen  from  below  and  above, 

73.  Special  forms  of  rolled  bar  iron, 

74.  Rodway  bar, 

75.  Single  fullered  bar, 

76.  Bevelled  bar, 

77.  78.  Concave  bar, 

79.  Plain  concave  bar, 

80.  Corrugated  "  Grip  "  bar,     . 

81.  Charlier  steel  bar, 

82.  83.  Racing  plate  steel, 

84.  Racing  plate  iron, 

85.  Right  front  shoe  seen  from  below 

86.  The  same  seen  from  above, 

87.  Left  hind  shoe  seen  from  above, 


PACK 

69 

69 
70 

72 
74 
75 

75. 

77 

81 

83 

83 
85 
85 
86 
88 
89 
93 
94 
95 
96 
96 
97 
97 
98 
98 
99 
106 
108 

109 
123 
124 
126 
130 
130 
130 
131 
131 
131 
131 
131 
131 
132 
134 
134 
134 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XV 


:fig.  page 

88.  Transverse  section  of  a  fore  shoe  through  one  of  the  nail 

holes,          .            .            .            .            ,            .            .            .  135 

89.  Cross  sections  of  four  fullered  shoes,     ....  137 

90.  German  military  shoe  for  fore  feet,        ,            .            .            .  139 
Fireman's  tools,      .....          facing  141,  142 

91.  Partly  completed  fore  shoe,          .....  143 

92.  Partly  completed  hind  shoe,         .....  *145 

93.  Right  fore  shoe  with  calkins,        .....  147 

94.  Shoe  with  obliquely  cut  off  heel,            ....  147 

95.  Shoe  fitted  for  removable  toe  and  heel  pieces,  .            .            .  149 
96-98.  Heel-pieces  (sharp),      ......  149 

99.  Blunt  heel-piece,    .......  149 

100.  Removable  toe-piece,         ......  150 

101.  Removable  toe-piece,  .  .  .  ,  ,  .150 

102.  Tool  for  removing  old  heel-pieces,           ....  150 

103.  Left  hind  shoe  with  toe-grip  and  calkins,          .            .            .  151 

104.  Steel  rod  with  toe  and  heel  grips  partly  formed,  .  .351 

105.  Frost  nail  and  stubs,          ......  155 

106.  Delperier's  frost  nail,        ......  155 

107.  Stamp  for  Delperier's  frost  nail,  .            .            .            .             .  156 

108.  Section  of  shoe  with  Delperier's  nail  inserted,              ,            .  156 

109.  Outer  heel  "  sharpened,"  .  .  .  .  .157 

110.  Inner  heel  "  sharpened,"  .            .....  157 

111.  Count  von  Einsiedel's  winter  shoe  for  front  feet,          .            .  157 

112.  The  same  for  hind  feet,     ......  157 

113.  Heel  of  "  screwed  "  shoe  with  countersunk  hole,          .            .  158 

114.  Anvil  for  making  screws,             .            .            .            .            .  159 

115.  Screws  (full  size)  provided  \sath  Whitworth  thread,    .            .  160 

116.  Screw-cutting  machine,    ......  160 

117.  Frost  screw  with  concave  sides,  .....  160 

118.  Frost  screws  used  by  the  German  army,            .            .            .  161 

119.  Mould  for  making  screws,           .            .            .            .            .  161 
120-124.  Screws,             .......  162 

125.  Taper  tap,    ........  162 

126.  Plug  tap,      ........  162 

127.  Screw  with  H-shaped  head,          .....  163 

128.  Screw  with  + -shaped  head,          .....  163 

129.  Screw  with  angled  head,  ......  163 

130.  Screw  with  Y-shaped  head,          .....  163 

131.  Hollow  screw,         .            .            .-          .            .            .            .  163 

132.  Perforated  screw,                ......  163 

133.  Universal  screw-key,  .  .  .  ,  .  .163 

134.  Sharp  cog,    .            .            . '          .            .            .            .            .  164 

135.  Blunt  cog,    ........  164 

136.  Counter-sink  for  enlarging  holes  in  shoe,           ,            .            .  164 

137.  Round  sharp  cogs,              .            .            .            .            .            .  165 

138.  Mould  and  anvil,    .......  166 

139.  Transverse  section  of  toe  of  grip-shoe  for  draught  horse,      .  168 


XVI 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


TIG. 

140.  Toe-grip  with  oval  shank  and  nut, 

141.  Transverse  section  of  shoe, 

142.  Patent  shoe  with  movable  toe-grip, 

143.  Normal  position  of  fore  limbs, 

144.  Turned-out  toes,     . 

145.  Calf -kneed  formation, 

146.  Pigeon-toed  formation , 

147.  Normal  conformation  of  limbs  as  viewed  from  the  side 

148.  Leg  over-extended, 

149.  Backward  incurvation  at  knee, 

150.  Oblique  pastern,     . 

151.  Upright  pastern  and  limb, 

152.  Bowing  over  at  knees, 

153.  Normal  position  of  limbs, 

154.  Hocks  turned  in,    . 

155.  Hocks  turned  out, 

156.  Excessively  curved  hocks, 

157.  Entire  hind  limb  placed  too  far  back, 

158.  159.  Pair  of  normal  feet  seen  from  in  front  and  from  behind 
160,  161.  Form  of  feet  where  toes  are  turned  outward, 
162,  163.  Form  of  feet  where  toes  are  turned  inward, 

164.  Foot  of  normal  limb  and  foot  of  abnormal  limb, 

165.  Abnormally  flat  (oblique)  hoof,  . 

166.  Normal  hoof,  ..... 

167.  Upright  hoof, 

168.  Two  feet  viewed  from  the  side,   . 

169.  Peculiar  distortion,  hoof  upright,  pastern  oblique, 

170.  Normal  progression  (showing  position  of  feet), 

171.  Mode  of  progression  with  turned-out  toes, 

172.  Mode  of  progression  with  turned-in  toes, 

173.  Lateral  view  of  hoof,  normal  progression, 

174.  Oblique  hoof,  mode  of  progression, 

175.  Upright  hoof,  mode  of  progression, 

176.  Normal  right  fore  foot,    . 

177.  Right  fore  foot  (out-turned  toe), 

178.  Right  fore  foot  (in-turned  toe) ,    . 

179.  Normal  right  hind  hoof,   . 

180.  Wide  "  spreading  "  hoof,  . 

181.  Narrow  hoof,  .  .  . 

182.  Diagram  of  proportions  of  fore  foot. 

183.  Diagram  of  proportions  of  hind  foot 

184.  Diagram  of  proprotions  of  fore  foot  (lateral  view), 

185.  Diagram  of  proportions  of  hind  foot  (lateral  view), 

186.  Diagram  of  proportions  of  fore  foot  (seen  from  above), 

187.  Diagram  of  proportions  of  hind  foot  (seen  from  above) 

188.  Overgrown  and  laterally  distorted  hoof, 

189.  Examining  style  of  movement  (horse  receding), 

190.  Examining  style  of  movement  (horse  approaching), 


PAGK- 

169 
169 
169 
172 
173 
173 
173 
174 
175 
175 
175 
176 
176 
177 
177 
177 
178 
178 
179 
179 
ISO- 
ISO 
180 
180 
180 
182 
182 
183 
183 
183 
185 
185 
18^ 
186 
187 
187 
188 
188 
188 
189 
189 
190 
190 
190 
190 
193 
199 
19^ 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


XVll 


too  long 


riG. 

191.  Examining  formation  (lateral  view), 
Doorman's  tools,      .  9  ,  . 

192.  Arabian  shoeing  knife. 

193.  Section  through  normal  hoof, 

194.  Section  through  hoof  with  thin  sole,    . 

195.  Section  through  normal  foot,    . 

196.  Front  foot,  .... 

197.  Right  fore-foot  of  normal  and  turned-in  limb 

198.  Vertical  section  through  wall  at  toe,    . 

199.  Hoof  too  oblique,  ... 

200.  The  same  hoof  properly  prepared, 
Colored  plate.     Hoof  prepared  for  shoeing, 

201.  Two  feet  seen  from  the  side  (a,  too  long  a  toe;  b 

202.  Foot  axis  in  oblique  foot, 

203.  Foot  axis  in  normal  foot, 

204.  Foot  axis  in  upright  foot, 

205.  Diagram  showing  influence  of  long  heels,  etc 

206.  Diagram  showing  influence  of  long  heels,  etc 

207.  Diagram  showing  influence  of  long  heels,  etc 

208.  Ewerloff's  Podometer, 

209.  Fullered  front  shoe  for  hack,     . 

210.  Fullered  fore  shoe  for  hack, 

211.  Fullered  seated  fore  shoe  with  thick  heels, 

212.  Fullered  front  shoe  for  hunter, 

213.  Lateral  view  of  concave  front  shoe  for  hack  or 

214.  Hind  shoe  for  hunter, 

215.  Temporary  shoe  with  leather  boot  and  straps 

216.  Fullered  seated  fore  shoe, 

217.  Concave  partially-fullered  "dub-toed"  fore  shoe, 

218.  Concave  fullered  feather-edged  fore  shoe, 

219.  Stamped  fore  shoe, 

220.  Concave  partially-fullered  hind  shoe, 

221.  Concave  partially-fullered  hind  shoe, 

222.  Concave  ijartially-fullered  hind  shoe, 

223.  Charlier  hind  shoe, 

224.  Racing  plate,      .... 

225.  Section  of  racing  plate  iron, 

226.  Racing  plate  (fore), 

227.  Concave  fullered  fore  shoe  (for  steeplechasing 

228.  Steel  fore  shoe  for  trotter  with  toe-weight, 

229.  Steel  hind  shoe  for  trotter, 

230.  Hind  hoof  shod  with  weighted  shoe, 

231.  Weights  seen  from  front  and  side, 

232.  American  toe-weighted  shoe, 

233.  American  quarter-weighted  shoe, 

234.  Partially  fullered  fore  shoe  (for  trotters), 

235.  Fullered  front  shoe  for  carriage  horse,  ground  surface, 

236.  Fullered  front  shoe  for  carriage  horse,  foot  surface,  . 


hunter. 


), 


faci 


PAGET 
.  20a 

facing  203 

.       204 

--    c      205 

-    .       205 

.       205 

.      206 

.       206 

.       207 

.      208 

.      208 

facing  208 

heels),    209 

211 

211 

211 

212 

213 

214 

216 

217 

ing  218 

•'       219 

"       220 

.      221 

.      221 

.       222 

facing  22S 

223 

224 

224 

226 

226 

228 

228 

.      229 

.       23(y'- 

facing  231 

"       231 

.       232 

.  234 
.  234 
.       234 

facing  23.> 
.  23(i. 
.      232 


:xvni 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTKATIONS. 


facing 

a 

facing 

and 

(< 

(( 


<{ 


(( 


(( 


<( 


"FIG. 

237.  Concave  fore  shoe  for  carriage  horse, 

238,  239.  Fullered  fore  shoe, 
240.  "Rodway"  fore  shoe, 
"241.  Thin  heeled  fullered  seated  fore  shoe, 

242.  Fullered  fore  shoe, 

243.  Stamped  hind  shoe  (for  omnibus  work)  with  two  calkins 

244.  Stamped  hind  shoe  (for  omnibus  work)    with  calkin 

wedge  heel,       ..... 

245.  Stamped  fore  shoe  for  omnibus  work, 

246.  Cart  horse  hind  shoe  for  town  work, 

247.  Cart  horse  stamped  fore  shoe  for  show  purposes, 

248.  Cart  horse  stamped  hind  shoe  for  show  purposes, 

249.  *'  North  Country"  stamped  fore  shoe,  . 

250.  "  North  Country"  stamped  hind  shoe, 

251.  Stamped  fore  shoe  for  farm  work, 

252.  Stamped  hind  shoe  for  farm  work, 

253.  Stamped  fore  shoe  for  railway  shunting  horses, 

254.  Stamped  hind  shoe  for  railway  shunting, 

255.  Ordinary  tip,       ..... 

256.  Upright  hoof  shod  with  a  tip, 

257.  Special  knife  with  stop  used  in  preparing  groove  for  Charlier 

tips, 

258.  Hoof  prepared  for  Charlier  tip, 

259.  Hoof  shod  with  Charlier  tip, 

260.  Stamped  fore  tip, 

261.  SirF.  Fitxwygram's  shoe, 

262.  SirF.  Fitzwygram's  shoe, 

263.  Oriental  shoe, 

264.  Special  grooved  shoes  with  rope  inlaid, 

265.  Front  shoe  rounded  at  the  toe, 

266.  Left  hind  shoe  for  horse  with  turned-in  toes, 

267.  Left  hind  shoe  for  horse  ^^dth  turned-in  toes  and  contraction 

of  outer  quarter  and  heel, 

268.  Hand-made  nails, 

269.  French  nails,       .... 

270.  Machine-made  nail, 

271.  Badly-formed  nail  head  and  shank  defective, 

272.  Cross  section  of  a  sound  and  well-shod  hoof, 

273.  Forceps,  .... 

274.  Right  fore  shoe  with  rounded  inner  edge  (forging  shoe), 

275.  Right  hind  shoe  with  two  lateral  toe-clips  (forging  shoe), 

276.  Fullered  hind  shoe  for  harness  horse  which  forges  and  wears 

wall  of  hind  foot,  .....      facing 

277.  Diamond-toed  fullered  hind  shoe  for  harness  horse,    .  " 

278.  Diamond-toed  hind  shoe  with  "  toe-spur  "  for  harness  horse 

which  forges  and  wears  wall  of  hind  foot,     .  .      facing 

279.  Examination  of  horse  that  strikes,        .... 

280.  Cutting  shoe,  ground  surface,  .... 


PAGE 

238 
241 
243 
242 
243 
245 

245 
246 
249 
250 
250 
251 
251 
253 
252 
253 
253 
257 
257 

258 
258 
258 
259 
260 
261 
263 
263 
267 
209 

271 
273 

272 
273 
273 
275 
276 
283 
283 

284 
284 

285 

287 
288 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


xis: 


FIG. 

281.  Cutting  shoe,  foot  surface, 

282.  Cutting  shoe  for  left  hind  foot, 

283.  Cutting  shoe  for  right  fore  foot, 

284.  Cutting  shoe  (right  hind)  for  horse  that  cuts  with  the 

285.  Shoes  for  horse  that  turns  the  toes  out, 

286.  Fullered  feather-edged  hind  shoe,  with  two  calkins, 

287.  Feather-edged  stamped  hind  shoe,wit]i  two  nails  inside 

288.  Partially  feather-edged  fullered  hind  shoe, 

289.  Partially-fullered  feather-edged  hind  shoe, 

290.  291.  Fullered  hind  shoe,  "set"  inside,    . 

292.  Fullered  seated  feather-edged  fore  shoe  for  harness  or 

horse,         ...... 

293.  Fullered  seated  feather-edged  fore  shoe, 

294.  Fullered  feather-edged  concave  fore  shoe, 

295.  Fullered  hind  shoe  for  hack, 

296.  Concave  feather-edged  hind  shoe  partially  fullered, 

297.  Concave  partially -fullered  feather-edged  hind  shoe, 

298.  Feather-edged  fullered  concave  fore  shoe, 

299.  Concave  three-quarter  hind  shoe, 

300.  Three-quarter  partially-fullered  hind  shoe, 

301.  Rubber  bar  pad  on  leather, 

302.  Rubber  frog  pad  on  leather, 
302 A.  Downie's  rubber  pad,      .... 
302b.   Showing  method  of  inserting  Hartmann's  pad,  and 


PAGE 


303. 
304. 
305. 
306. 
307. 
308. 
309. 
310, 
312. 
313. 
314. 
315, 
317. 
318. 

319. 
320. 
321. 
322. 
323. 
324. 
325. 


.       305 

.      306 

■      307 

.      307 

.      310 

.      310 

,       310 

.      313 

.      318 

.       321 

.       323 

facing  324 

325 

326 

larness 

facing  327 
327 
330 
330 
333 

Left  front  foot  with  inside  half  of  sole  "  dropped  "  or  convex,       333 
Stamped  fore  shoe  (for  cart  horse).     The  "quoit"  shoe,  facing  334 
Stamped  fore   shoe   (for  cart  horse)    "set*'    around  outer 
margin,    .  ......     facing  33^ 


tongs,  ...... 

Hoof  surface  of  shoe  with  Hartmann's  pad  inserted, 

Special  shoe  for  straw  or  fibre  pad, 

Upper  surface  of  above  shoe, 

Hind  foot  of  ass,  seen  from  below. 

Fore  foot  of  ass,  seen  from  below, 

Fore  foot  of  mule,  seen  from  below. 

Instruments  for  cleaning  out  feet, 

311.  Special  pincers  for  examining  diseased  feet, 

Special  "searcher  "  used  in  giving  exit  to  i)us, 

Bar  shoe,  seen  from  above. 

Concave  bar  fore  shoe ,      . 

316.  Fullered  bar  hind  shoe  (seated  around  toe). 

Fullered  seated  bar  fore  shoe, 

Fullered  seated  three-quarter  bar  fore   shoe    (for 

horse) ,      .  .  .  .  . 

Stamped  bar  hind  shoe  (for  cart  horse)  > 
Section  of  flat  hoof  with  weak  sole. 
Special  shoe  for  above  foot. 
Transverse  section  through  a  flat-soled  hoof  with  shoe. 


• 

288 

• 

289 

• 

289 

toe,  . 

289 

• 

290 

facing 

r293 

toe,  " 

293 

a 

294 

(( 

294 

( t 

295 

riding 

facing  296 

t  ( 

296 

( ( 

297 

(( 

297 

(< 

298 

<( 

298 

<( 

299 

(( 

299 

<c 

300 

• 

303 

. 

303 

• 

304 

use  of 


(( 


<( 


(( 


XX  LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG. 

326,  327.  Stamped  hind  shoe  (for  cart  horse),  .  .     facing  335 

328.  Stamped  cart  hind  shoe,  with  toe-piece,  .  .  *'      338 

329.  Shoe  for ''knuckling  over,"         .  .  .  .  .339 

330.  Special  shoe  for   "  knuckling  "   associated  with  obliteration 

of  the  coronet  joint,        ......  339 

331.  Strangulation  of  the  frog  by  the  bars,   ....  341 

332.  Excessive  contraction  of  heels,    .....  341 

333.  Unilateral  contraction,      ......  341 

334.  Instrument  for  expanding  De  Fay's  shoe,           .            .            .  351 

335.  Shoe  for  expanding  the  hoof,     .              ....  352 

336.  Einsiedel's  shoe,  seen  from  behind,         ....  352 

337.  Fullered  fore  shoe  (for  harness  horse),  with  frog  plate,    facing  353 

338.  Tip  for  producing  frog  pressure,              .            .            .           "  353 

339.  Professor  F.  Smith's  fore  shoe  for  expanding  contracted  feet,  354 

340.  Contracted  hoof  from  unshod  horse,       .  .  .  .356 

341 .  Left  fore  foot  with  weak  heels,                ....  357 

342.  Foot  with  local  contraction ......  357 

343.  Bar  shoe  for  laterally  distorted  hoof,      ....  361 

344.  Right  hind  foot  of  foal  with  three-quarter  shoe  of  unequal 

thickness,  .      -      .  .  ,  .  .  . .     362 

345.  Right  fore  foot  showing  lateral  curvature,        .  .  .      363 

346.  Cross  section  of  a  right  fore  foot,  showing  lateral  curvature,       364 

347.  Hoof  showing  sand  cracks  at  coronary  and  at  bearing  margin,      365 

348.  349.    . .367 

350.  Sand-crack  strap,   .......  368 

351.  Hoof  shod  for  sand-crack  of  the  toe,      ....  369 

352.  Hoof  shod  with  bar  shoe  for  quarter-crack,      *.  .  .  369 

353.  Vertical  section  of  a  hoof,  .....  373 

354.  Hind  foot  shod  with  surgical  shoe  for  retaining  dressings,     .  381 

355.  Shoe  for  surgical  dressing  of  the  foot,    ....  383 

356.  Cover  for  shoe  shown  in  previous  figure,  .  .  .  382 

357.  Stamped  cart  fore  shoe   (surgical)    with  arrangement  for 

dressing  foot,        ......     facing  383 

358.  Stamjjed  cart  hind  shoe   (surgical)  with  arrangement  for 

dressing  foot,         ......      facing  383 

359.  Plates  for  surgical  shoes,  .  .  .  .  .  "       384 

360.  Stamped  cart  hind  shoe   (surgical)   with   arrangement  for 

dressing  foot,        .'.....     facing  384 

361.  362.  Stamped  cart  hind  shoe  (surgical)  with  arrangement  for 

dressing  foot,        ......     facing  885 

363.  Showing  appearance  of  hoof  after  long-continued  inflamma- 

tion of  the  perioplic  ring,  .....       387 

364.  Cross  section  of  the  horny  and  sensitive  walls  from  a  case  of 

contracted  heel,    .......       388 

365.  Transverse  section  of  horny  and  sensitive  wall  from  case  of 

corn  of  the  wall,  ......       389 

366.  Portion  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  wall  showing  changes 

after  old  standing  corn,  .....       390 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XXI 

FIG.  PAGB 

367.  Ground  surface  of  pedal  bone  showing  bony  enlargements  on 

the  wings  (retrossal  processes)  in  consequence  of  old  standing 

corn,           ........  390 

368.  Three-quarter  bar  shoe,    ......  393 

369.  Ordinary'  three-quarter  shoe,        ...              .          .  393 

370.  Three-quarter  fullered  seated  fore  shoe,  .  .     facing  395 

371.  Fullered  fore  shoe  "  set  "  on  ground  surface  of  inside  heel,  *'  395 

372.  Longitudinal  section  of  hoof  one  year  after  severe  attack  of 

laminitis,  .......  396 

373.  Longitudinal  section  of  hoof  three  months  after  attack,        .  396 

374.  Hoof  after  laminitis,  ......  396 

375.  The  same  shod,       .......  396 

376.  Special  broad  shoe  for  laminitis,  ....  397 

377.  A  piece  of  the  toe  wall  removed,  together  with  keratoma,     .  399 

378.  Shoe  prepared  for  canker  dressing,         ....  401 

379.  Cover  for  above  shoe,        ......  401 

380.  Special  shoe  for  canker,  with  cover  applied,     .  .  .  402 

381.  Left  fore  foot,  seen  from  the  outer  side,  .  .  .  403 

382.  Pedal  bone,  with  ossification  of  lateral  cartilages,        .  .  404 

383.  Right  fore-foot  altered  in  form  in  consequence  of  side  bone,  405 

384.  Shoe  for  above  foot,  with  broad  outer  limb,      .  .  .  405 

385.  Preparation  illustrating  navicular  disease,         .  .  .  407 

386.  Showing  normal  relations  of  bones  of  foot  and  of  flexor  per- 

forans  tendon,      .......       409 

387.  Formation  causing  increased  strain  on  navicular  bone  and 

perforans  tendon,  ......       409 

388.  Showing  manner  of  trimming  hoof  so  as  to  diminish  effects 

of  navicular  disease,         .... 

389.  390.  Stamped  wedge-heeled  hind  shee, 

391.  Fullered  wedge-heeled  hind  shoe  for  harness  horse, 

392.  Fullered  pattern  hind  shoe, 

393.  Stamped  patten  (or  "  staple  ")  fore  shoe, 

394.  Stamped  patten  (or  "staple")  hind  shoe, 

395.  Patten  hind  shoe,  .... 

396.  Fullered  seated  fore  shoe, 

397.  Antero-external  view  of  ox's  left  fore  foot, 

398.  Antero-external  view  of  ox's  left  fore  foot, 

399.  Supero-posterior  xie^v  of  an  ox's  hoof  removed  by  maceration. 

400.  Ox's  claw  with  shoe  attached, 

401.  Voigtland  shoe  for  oxen, 

402.  Travis  for  cattle,    .  .  .     ' 

403.  Improvised  travis,  .  , 
Berkshire  County  Council's  School, 
Ground  plan  of  buildings  for  shoeing  competition, 

Index,         ........      435 


• 

409 

facing 

410 

a 

411 

(( 

411 

(( 

412 

a 

412 

it 

413 

(( 

413 

. 

416 

. 

418 

iion. 

420 

• 

422 

• 

423 

• 

424 

• 

425 

facing 

427 

• 

433 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Bergeron,  Guide  theorique  et  pratique  de  marechalerie.  Brussels,  1890» 

Berliner  Thierarztliche  Wochenschrift.     Berlin,  Vols,  for  1892-7. 

Bracy  Clark,  On  the  Horse's  Foot.    London,  1861. 

Brambtlla,  Horse-Shoeing.     Milan,  1870. 

Delperier,  Monographie  des  ferrures  a  glace.     1887. 

Der  Hufschniied  (monthly).     Dresden. 

DOMINIK,  Lehrbuch  iiber  Hufbeschlag.     Berlin,  1887. 

Douglas,  Horse-Shoeing,  etc.     London,  1873. 

FiTZWYGRAM,   Lieut.-Gen.  Sir    F.,    Directions    for    Shoeing    Horses* 

London,  1896. 
FoGLiATA,  Manuale  di  Ippo  Podologia.    Pisa,  1886. 
Giornale  della  veterinaria  niilitare.    1893. 
GoYAU,  Manuel  de  marechalerie  militaire. 
GoYAU,  Traite  pratique  de  marechalerie.     Paris,  1890. 
Hunting,  The  Art  of  Horse-Shoeing.     London,  1895. 
Journal  de  med.  vet.  de  I'Ecole  de  Lyon.     Files  for  1890-97. 
Journal  de  medicine  vet.  et  Zoot.     Files  for  1890-97. 
Juan  A.   S.   y  Rozas,  Tratado  complete  del  arte  de  herrar  y  forgar.. 

Saragossa,  1879 
Leisering-Hartmann,  Der  Fuss  des  Pferdes.    Dresden,  1861. 
LuNGWiTZ,  Der  Lehrmeister  im  Hufbeschlag.     Dresden,  1895, 
Moller,  Prof.  Dr.,  Anleitung  zum  Bestehen  der  Hufschmiede-Priifung.. 

Berlin,  1897. 
Moller,  Prof.  Dr.,  Die  Hufkrankheiten  des  Pferdes.     Berlin,  1895. 
Pader,  Precis  theorique  et  pratique  de  marechalerie. 
Peters,    Die    Formveranderungen    bei    Einwirkung   der    Last,     etc^ 

Berlin,  1883. 
Peuch  and  Lesbre,  Precis  du  Pied  du  cheval  et  de  sa  ferrure.  Paris,  1896.. 
Hey,  Traite  de  marechalerie  veterinaire. 
Receuil  de  medicine  veterinaire.     Files  for  1887-97. 
Koberge,  The  Foot  of  the  Horse,  etc.    New  York,  1894. 
Russell,  Scientific  Horse-Shoeing.     Cincinnati,  U.  S.  A.,  1895. 
Steglich,  Uber  dem  Hufmechanismus  des  Pferdehufes.     Leipzig,  1883. 
Thary,  Marechalerie.     Paris,  1896. 
The  Veterinarian.     Files  for  1870-97. 
The  Veterinary  Journal.     Files  for  1878-97. 
The  Veterinary  Record.     Files  for  1888-97. 
Watrin,  Le  pied  du  cheval  et  sa  ferrure.    Paris,  1887. 


INTRODUCTION 


J 


AND 


HISTORY  OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 


lA^TRODUCTIOX. 

Feom  the  description  of  its  structure  and  functions,  hereafter 
given,  the  hoof  will  be  seen  to  act  as  a  protective  covering  to 
the  sensitive  structures  of  the  foot.  In  the  wild  horse  this 
protection  is  perfect.  In  proportion  as  the  bearing  surface  of 
the  hoof  wears  away,  it  is  renewed  from  above  ;  but  immediately 
the  horse  is  made  to  draw  or  carry  on  ordinary  roads,  the  hoof 
wears  more  rapidly  than  it  can  be  produced.  Some  artificial 
protection  then  becomes  indispensable,  and  in  almost  all 
countries  this  takes  the  form  of  an  iron  strip  or  plate,  fastened 
to  the  hoof  with  nails,  and  termed  a  '  shoe.'  Everything  relating 
to  the  preparation  and  application  of  such  means  of  protection 
comes  within  the  sphere  of  horse-shoeing,  which  therefore 
may  claim  to  be  both  a  science  and  an  art.  A  science,  because 
a  knowledge  of  horse-shoeing  presupposes  an  acquaintance  with 
the  principles  and  practice  laid  down  by  veterinary  surgery  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  hoof  in  a  sound  condition,  for  im- 
proving the  faulty,  and  partially  or  completely  restoring  the 
function  of  the  diseased.  Horse-shoeing  derives  from  anatomy 
a  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  the  foot,  from  physiology 
relative  guidance  in  treatment,  and  from  surgery  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  methods  appropriate  to  the  relief  of  diseases  of  the 
foot.  Horse-shoeing  is  an  art,  because  its  exponents  are  handi- 
craftsmen engaged  not  only  in  the  making  of  shoes,  but  in  fashion- 
ing them  to  the  foot,  the  ground  surface  of  which  demands  careful 
preparation  to  ensure  a  correct  position  of  the  limb,  and  there- 
fore normal  action,  and  to  secure  proper  fitting  of  the  shoe. 

A 


2  HISTORY   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

The  object  of  shoeing  is  manifold.  It  serves  to  prevent 
excessive  wear  of  the  hoof,  and  in  some  measure  to  protect  the 
sensitive  structures  which  the  hoof  contains ;  to  hinder  slipping 
on  smooth  roads,  on  ice  and  snow,  and  on  muddy  streets  ;  to 
improve  in  certain  instances  faulty  action ;  and  as  an  accessory 
in  the  treatment  of  diseased  hoofs. 

It  can  rarely  be  dispensed  with,  though  horses  doing  light 
work  in  towns  or  on  land  are  sometimes  suthciently  protected 
by  '  tips.'  In  most  cases,  however,  the  shoe  should  protect  the 
entire  ground  edge  of  the  wall.  As  growth  is  then  uninter- 
rupted, the  normal  relations  of  the  hoof  to  the  ground  gradually 
change,  and  it  becomes  necessary,  by  occasional  judicious  trim- 
ming, to  restore  the  hoof  to  proper  shape.  This  is  usually  done 
at  each  shoeing,  but  is  just  as  necessary  in  unshod  horses  which 
are  resting. 

Shoeing  is  by  no  means  the  simple  aflair  it  appears  to  the  non- 
professional mind.  The  form  of  the  shoe  and  the  preparation  of 
the  foot  demand  endless  variation,  depending  upon  the  shape  of 
the  hoof,  the  condition  of  the  sole,  the  quality  of  the  horn,  the 
action  of  the  horse,  his  work  and  his  weight. 

Only  when  shod,  and  well  shod,  can  the  horse  exert  his  best 
powers  ;  and  any  inattention  or  neglect  is  followed  by  injury  to 
the  hoof,  if  not  by  loss  of  the  animal's  services. 

In  addition  to  a  knowledc^e  of  the  structure  and  functions  of 
the  limb  and  foot,  the  farrier  must  possess  bodily  and  mental 
endowments  of  an  average  order,  besides  experience  and 
common-sense. 

He  must  determine  quickly  and  accurately  the  necessities  of 
each  case,  and  leave  little  to  chance.  The  completed  shoe 
should,  in  its  form,  thickness,  breadth,  length,  stamping,  and 
seating,  bear  a  proper  relation  to  the  hoof,  as  well  as  to  the 
animal's  work  and  weight,  and  everything  must  be  done  with 
a  careful  eye  to  the  end  in  view. 

HISTORY. 

Though  much  debated,  it  is  still  uncertain  to  whom,  or  even 
to  what  race,  we  owe  the  invention  of  horse-shoeing.  Accounts 
may  be  found  in  medical, veterinary, agricultural, military, archaeo- 
logical, and  other  publications  ;  but  having  no  intention  to  make 
this  their  chronicle,  we  shall  give  only  a  short  sketch  of  the  subject. 


HISTORY   OF   HOESE-SHOEING.  O 

Whether  the  Eomans  or  Greeks  were  acquainted  with 
nailed-on  shoes  is  undecided ;  for  though  they  were  aware 
of  the  insensibility  and  hardness  of  the  horn,  as  shown 
by  the  writings  of  Homer,  Virgil,  and  Horace,  it  is  well 
known  that  the  horses  of  Alexander's  army  suffered  severely 
during  marches  through  Asia  in  consequence  of  the  wearing  of 
their  feet,  and  that  vast  numbers,  becoming  lame,  had  to  be 
abandoned.  Mithridates,  King  of  Pontus  (first  century  B.C.), 
while  laying  siege  to  Cycicus,  sent  his  entire  cavalry  to  Bithynia 
for  treatment,  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  horses' 
feet  had  suffered  from  prolonged  marching. 

Ko  Greek  or  Latin  writer  on  military  science,  hippology,  or 
ao-riculture  mentions  shoeiniT;  with  nailed-on  shoes.  Vesjetius 
Flavins  certainly  describes  the  forging  of  weapons  and  other 
instruments,  but  says  nothing  of  either  shoes  or  nails,  as 
probably  he  would  have  done  had  they  been  used  in  his  time. 

Nor  is  there  the  barest  indication  of  a  horse-shoe  on  Trajan's 
Column,  on  the  bas-reliefs  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  the  frieze  of 
the  Parthenon,  on  the  mounted  statues  of  Pompeii,  nor  in  the 
mosaics  representing  the  overthrow  of  Darius  by  Alexander,  in 
the  Naples  Museum. 

A  further  proof  of  unacquaintance  with  nailed-on  shoes  is 
given  by  numerous  authors  of  this  time,  who  describe  methods 
to  render  the  hoof  resistant,  and  give  directions  for  treating 
excessively  abraded  parts. 

Xenophon,  the  general  and  author,  for  instance,  states : — 
"  To  render  the  hoof  as  hard  as  possible,  the  horse  should  be 
kept  on  a  stone  pavement,  both  when  in  the  stable  and  when 
in  the  court  being  cleaned."  Columella  recommends  oak  for 
the  floor  of  the  stall,  which  hardens  the  hoof  in  the  same  wav 
as  stone.  In  1827  an  ordinance  of  Diocletian  (303  a.d.)  was 
discovered,  in  which  the  prices  of  labouj*  and  the  necessaries  of 
life  are  fixed,  and  in  which  there  are  two  instances  of  fees  for 
the  services  of  the  veterinary  surgeon  (Mulomedicus),  viz.,  for 
clipping  the  animal  and  paring  the  hoofs,  6  denars*  ;  for  groom- 
ing and  cleaning  the  head,  20  denars.  Had  shoeing  been 
known  then,  it  would  doubtless  have  been  referred  to  in  this 
edict. 

In  spite  of  the  general  agreement  in  selecting  horses  witli 

*  Denar,  a  Roman  coin,  which  in  Diocletian's  time  equalled  about  Is.  i^d. 


4  HISTOEY   OF   HOESE-SHOEING. 

hard  and  rounded  hoofs  and  concave  soles,  and  the  care  taken 
to  improve  the  quality  of  the  horn,  many  grades  were  recog- 
nised, as  shown  by  the  terms  imgulcc,  attritcv,  detritce,  suhtritce, 
etc.,  which  continually  recur  in  the  writings  of  Absyrtus, 
Theomnestus,  and  Vegetius.  For  baggage  horses,  Xenophon 
recommends  leather  soles  and  shoes.  Aristotle  speaks  of  a 
kind  of  sock  which  was  bound  on  the  feet  of  camels  used  in 
war.  The  Greek  veterinary  surgeon  Absyrtus  clearly  indicates* 
the  evils  due  to  the  straps  by  which  the  soles  were  affixed. 
Cato  suo-Qjests  that  the  under  surface  of  draught  animals'  feet 
should  be  smeared  witli  fluid  pitch  to  make  them  more 
resistant.  Columella,  Theomnestus,  and  Vegetius  describe  pro- 
tecting soles  or  shoes  formed  of  woven  broom,  reeds,  and  bast 
(sokm  spartece),  and  fastened  to  the  hoof  by  straps.  Similar  shoes 
are  still  used  in  Japan.  The  Eomans  also  used  metal  shoes 
{solem  ferrece).  Suetonius  states  that  Nero  took  with  him  on  a 
certain  journey  1000  carriages  drawn  by  mules  shod  with 
sandals  or  soles  of  silver.  Pliny  asserts  that  the  mule  of 
Popea  (wife  of  Nero)  was  provided  with  gold  soles.  These 
soles,  termed  hipposandals,  etc.,  are  found  all  over  Germany, 
France,  and  England,  wherever  the  Eomans  settled.  The 
richest  discovery  was  made  in  1851  and  1855,  during  the 
excavations  at  Dalheim  in  Luxembourg. 

Hipposandals,  though  varying  in  form,  usually  consist  of  an 
oval   metal   plate,   prolonged   backwards    on   either    side,   and 

sometimes  carrying  a  curved 
hook.  In  front  and  laterally 
are  wings,  provided  with  eyes 
and  rings.  Others  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  sides  being 
bent  upwards  in  front  and 
behind,  so   that   when   seen 

Fig.    1.  —  Iron    hipposandal,  found  during   the     „  ^  •  ^       ^^  ^  ^ 

excavation  of  a  Kouian  baUi  near  Lazenhansen     irOUl    the    Side    thCy  reSembiC 
(Wiirtemberg).  . 

an  ancient  galley  (fig.  1). 
Straps  passed  through  these  '  clips,'  hooks,  eyes,  and  rings, 
fastened  the  shoe  to  the  foot.  It  would  therefore  appear  that 
such  shoes  were  only  used  for  slow  work,  or  for  animals 
whose  hoofs  were  already  excessively  worn.  This  view  is  con- 
firmed by  the  rarity  of  such  hipposandals,  as  compared  with 
nailed-on  shoes. 


HISTORY    OF   HORSE-SHOEING.  5 

As  for  the  instruments  used  to  shorten  over-long  feet,  we 
know,  from  the  accounts  given  by  Hippocrates,  Absyrtus,  and 
Vegetius,  and  by  the  remains  found  in  Gastra  Peregrina, 
Pompeii,  and  Masium,  that  tliey  were  ahnost  precisely  similar 
to  the  '  toeing-knife '  of  the  present  day. 

In  general,  the  liorse-shoes  of  both  these  classical  peoples 
were  neither  practical  nor  perfect. 

The  Celts,  however,  are  credited,  especially  by  French  investi- 
gators, with  having  employed  nailed-on  shoes  before  the  opening 
of  the  Christian  era,  and  having  extended  their  use  throughout 
Gaul,  Germany,  and  England.  Though  described  by  the 
Komans  as  barbaric,  these  people  excelled  in  such  occupations 
as  agriculture,  mining,  shipbuilding  and  sailing,  commerce  and 
art.  The  Gauls  and  other  Northern  races  of  this  period  hoped 
to  resume  their  work  after  death,  and  therefore  buried  weapons 
and  other  property,  and  even  favourite  horses,  along  with  their 
dead.  From  such  remains  archaeologists  have  been  able  to 
determine  the  habits  and  customs,  and  even  the  industries  of 
these  ancient  races.  Amongst  articles  discovered  have  been 
horse-shoes. 

The  French  palaeontologist  Capstan,  during  excavations  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  town  of  Alesia  (in  the  Department  of 
the  Cote  d'Or),  found,  in  addition  to  wheel  tyres  and  horses' 
bones,  fragments  of  bronze  horse-shoes,  worn  through  at  the 
toe,  and  a  collection  of  nails,  the  heads  of  which  resemble 
violin  pegs.  The  same  observer,  in  examining  a  Celtic  barrow, 
found  buried  in  a  quantity  of  ashes  the  bones  of  men,  horses, 
pigs,  and  bears,  and  beneath  them  a  triangular  file,  a  portion  of 
a  flat  hie,  a  chisel,  masses  of  iron  dross,  a  piece  of  bronze 
casting,  an  iron  buckle,  an  iron  hammer  about  five  pounds  in 
weight,  an  iron  ring,  and  part  of  a  small  horse-shoe,  with  a 
nail  attached.  The  remains  were  mixed  with  broken  fragjments 
of  rude  Celtic  pottery. 

Between  the  French  towns  of  Langres  and  Dijon,  where 
most  probably  the  last  battles  which  preceded  the  siege  of 
Alesia  (b.c.  52),  and  delivered  Gallia  into  the  hands  of 
Caesar,  were  fought,  relatively  large  numbers  of  small  fullered 
shoes  have  been  found  at  a  depth  of  2  to  3  feet.  Some 
carried  nails  resembling  in  form  a  Eoman  T,  which  were 
provided  with  clenches,  showing  how  the  shoes  were  fastened 


HISTORY   OF   HORSE-SHOEIXG. 


to  the  feet.  Similar  shoes  have  been  found  in  Celtic  monu- 
ments by  the  French  paLieontologist  Foquet,  the  Swiss  Troyon, 
and  others.  Quiquerez  discovered  some  in  the  Bernese  Jura^ 
buried  in  an  earthen  mound  along  with  horses'  bones,  and,  from 
the  evidence  furnished  by  the  superincumbent  earth,  referred 
them  to  the  sixth  century  B.C. 

All  these  shoes  are  characterised  by  six  large  roundish  nail- 
holes,  opposite  each  of  which  the  border  of  the  shoe  is  bulged 
outwards.  There  are  shoes  with  and  shoes  without  heels ;  but 
all  are  very  small  and  weak  (about  ^^.  inch  thick,  and  ^  to  ii 
inch  broad).  They  vary  in  weight  from  3  to  3^  ounces,  and 
their  shape  is  irregular  and  defective.  The  nail-heads  are  flat,  and 
rounded  off  towards  the  side.  The  shanks  are  short,  four-sided, 
tapering,  and  always  pointed,  showing  that  the  nail  was  not 
cut  and  clenched  after  driving,  but  simply  turned  over  and 
beaten  flat  on  the  horn.  According  to  Veterinary-Surgeon 
Mathieu,  however,  other  shoes  of  a  more  modern  stamp  exist. 
They  have  been  found  at  Alesia,  at  Mont-Auxois,  at  Ancy  le 
Franc,  and  in  the  valleys  of  La  Brenne  and  L'Armencon.  In 
1871,  on  the  occasion  of  erecting  new  buildings  at  the  Sevres- 
porcelain  factory,  careful  excavations  were  carried  out,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Mathieu,  who  hoped  to  find  similar  shoes,  it 
beincp  know^n  that  the  Gauls  under  the  command  of  Camu- 
logenus,  who  were  defeated  by  Labienus,  had  fled  towards 
Meudon,  through  the  Sevres  valley.  The  search  was  successful, 
shoes  being  found  at  a  depth  of  about  9  feet. 

It  is  therefore  clear  that  nailed-on  shoes  were  in  use  before 

the  Roman  subjugation  of  Gaul,  and 
that  several  forms  of  shoe  were  made ; 
while  it  seems  probable  the  art  was 
known  at  more  than  one  centre,  and 
that  if  the  Gauls  were  not  the  actual 
inventors  of  nailed-on  shoes,  thev  at 
least  were  the  first  to  practise  the  art 
of  horse-shoeing.  At  that  time  the  very 
light,  slender  shoe  was  fastened  with- 
out the  use  of  clips,  the  hoof  was  not 
pared,  and  the  nails  were  simply  turned 
over.  It  is  believed  that  the  Druids  made  and  fastened  on 
the  shoes  for  the  Gallic  warriors. 


Fig.  2.— Celtic  shoe 
(after  Megnin). 


HISTORY   OF   HORSE-SHOEING.  7 

The  period  comprised  between  the  Roman  conquest  of  Gaul 
and  the  fall  of  the  West  Roman  Empire  in  476,  termed  by  the 
French  the  Gallo-Roman  period,  affords  however  other  examples 
of  shoes.  These  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  ruins  of 
this  period,  associated  with  coins,  weapons,  and  various  other 
objects,  and  many  are  to  be  seen  in  the  principal  museums  of 
Germany,  France,  Belgium,  and  England.  They  resemble  those 
of  the  Celtic  period,  and  have  the  same  bulging  opposite  the 
nail-holes,  but  are  larger  and  heavier  (weighing  from  6  to  9 
ounces),  and  therefore  appear  destined  for  larger  and  heavier 
horses.  This  might  seem  to  indicate  tliat  the  breeds  of  horses 
were  undergoing  improvement.  The  nails  had  smaller  heads, 
the  shanks  were  always  quadrangular,  the  point  never  cut,  but 
folded  over  on  the  hoof,  either  in  a  straight  line,  or  else  in  the 
form  of  a  ring.  The  clenching  was  incomplete,  and  resembled 
that  practised  at  the  present  day  by  certain  nomad  tribes  and 
by  the  Eastern  nations. 

The  shoes  found  in  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Belgium 
usually  show  a  distinct  fullering,  and  six  to  eight  nail-holes. 
The  outer  border  is  somewhat  bulged,  as  in  the  plain  shoes. 
The  toe  is  wide.  Many  shoes  have  narrow  thick  heels,  or  even 
calkins.     Occasionally  there  is  a  toepiece. 

In  the  museum  at  Avignon  is  a  bas-relief  of  the  second 
century.  It  represents  two  horses  drawing  a  carriage  contain- 
ing three  persons — the  driver  with  his  w^hip,  a  man  in  Gallic 
costume,  and  a  lictor  provided  with  his  staff  of  office.  The 
shoes,  and  even  the  nails,  on  the  fore-feet  of  one  horse  are 
quite  clearly  visible.  In  the  Louvre  ^luseum,  Paris,  there  is 
a  bas-relief  of  a  carriage  with  horses,  the  first  of  which  is  shod 
on  all  four  feet.  The  nails  are  clenched.  The  general  appear- 
ance recalls  the  time  of  the  first  Emperor. 

The  horses  of  the  Roman  patricians  were  not  invariably 
shod,  in  many  cases  the  front-feet  alone  being  so  protected. 
According  to  French  authors,  some  of  the  peoples,  more  especi- 
ally those  of  German  origin,  included  in  the  Roman  Empire, 
possessed  the  art  of  shoeing.  The  references  to  shoeing  during 
this  period  are  obscure,  and  often  repose  on  the  evidence  of 
fables  and  songs.  According  to  one  account,  St  George  (who 
lived  about  the  end  of  the  third  century),  while  in  pursuit  of 
a  dragon,  lost  a  shoe,  and  continued  the  chase  until  his  horse's 


8  HISTORY   OF  HORSE-SHOEING. 

foot  bled.  This  would  indicate  that  shoeing  was  known  about 
that  time  in  Germany.  A  shoe,  said  to  be  the  one  in  question, 
is  still  exhibited  in  the  Mcolai  Church  in  Leipzig. 

The  obscurity  as  to  the  origin  of  shoeing  was  somewhat  dis- 
sipated by  the  discovery  of  shoes  in  the  Eoman  fortress  of 
Saalburg,  near  Homburg,  in  1870.  The  castle  was  built  by 
Drusus  a  few  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  remained 
more  or  less  continuously  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans  until  the 
last  quarter  of  the  third  century.  The  shoes  there  found 
exhibit  calkins  in  some  cases,  and  are  provided  with  four  to 
eight  nail-holes.  Whether  these  shoes  belong  to  a  Eoman  or 
a  Germanic  race  of  this  period  is  still  doubtful.  The  heels  of 
those  unprovided  with  calkins  present  a  certain  resemblance  to 
the  heels  of  interfering  shoes, — that  is,  they  are  deep,  and 
narrower  at  the  ground  than  at  the  hoof  surface.  The  shoe 
figured  *  is  one  quarter  of  the  real  size,  shows  no  fullering,  is 
from  "I  inch  to  1^  inch  broad  in  the  web,  4  to  5  inches  long,  and 
3  to  4  inches  broad  over  all, — that  is,  it  is  below  medium  size. 

Many  authors  believe  that  certain  tribes  in  Africa,  Asia,  and 
Eastern  Europe  were  already  acquainted  with  and  practised 
horse-shoeing  before  the  dwellers  in  the  Eoman  Empire.  Thus, 
in  the  East,  the  Mongols  claim  to  have  shod  witli  iron  since 
the  earliest  times.  Their  shoes  resemble  our  bar  shoe,  save  in 
being  fastened  by  three  clips  instead  of  nails.  The  Arabian 
shoe  is  said  to  be  merely  a  modification  of  this  Asiatic  pattern, 
with  the  single  difference  that  it  is  fastened  with  nails.  (Com- 
pare Bouley  and  Eeynal,  Dictionnaire  de  MMecine  V6Urin,  6.) 

Shoeing  was  more  widely  practised  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  oldest  shoe  of  the  Merovingian  time  is  that  from  the  grave 
of  Childeric,  King  of  the  Franks  (died  481),  which  was  found 
in  1653,  together  with  other  remains.  It  was,  however,  so 
injured  by  rust  that  on  being  grasped  it  fell  to  pieces, — the 
larger  piece  has  been  completed  in  the  figure  (fig.  3). 
Beckmann,  and  afterwards  Eueff,  doubted  whether  this  had 
been  a  shoe.  Eueff,  who  claimed  that  it  was  a  portion  of  a 
saddle  frame,  supports  his  case  as  follows  : — 

"  So  many  other  portions  of  harness  were  present,  such  as 
bits  and  stirrups,  that  it  seems  possible  the  saddle  was  also 
interred.     Is  it  not  straining  the  point  to  believe  that,  in  a  grave 

*  Gohausen  and  Jacobi  (Das  Romercastell  Saalburg). 


HISTORY   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


9 


Fig.  3.- 


C"7 


-Shoe  from  the  grave  of  Childeric, 
King  of  the  Franks. 


where  only  a  horse's  head  was  found  and  no  remains  of  feet,  shoes 
should  have  been  included  as  something  of  particular  value  ? " 

The  view  advanced  by  Euetf,  that  the  shoes  were  added  by 
the  Alemanni,  seems  much 
more  probable,  because  they 
were  addicted  to  the  consump- 
tion of  horse-iiesh,  and  there- 
fore had  better  opportunities 
of  discovering  the  formation 
of  the  different  portions  of  the 
foot  (?) ;  and  also  because  the 
horse  being  to  them  an  indis- 
pensable means  of  transport  in 
war,  they  would  make  it  a 
special  study,  and  seek  for  a 
more  practical  method  of  shoe- 
ing than  the  hipposandals  of 
the  Eomans.      The  excavations 

of  the  battlefields  of   the  Alemanni,  near  Ulm,  support  this 
view.      Rueff  continues  : — 

"  Compared  with  other  antique  shoes,  it  is  narrower  at  the  toe, 
is  unprovided  with  calkins  and  toepiece,  and  has  six  nail-holes, 
the  punching  of  which  has  somewhat  bent  the  outer  border  of 
the  shoe. 

"  In  examining  the  graves  of  the  pre-Christian  Alemanni, 
Hassler  found  one  containing  the  remains  of  weapons,  and 
close  to  it  a  horse-shoe.  This  has  some  resemblance  to  other 
antique  horse-shoes  found  in  the  same  country ;  it  is  broad  at 
the  toe,  has  three  nail-holes  and  quadrangular  calkins.  The 
graves  date  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth  to  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century." 

Next  to  this  shoe  must  be  placed  one  found,  together  with 
four  smaller  shoes,  at  a  place  of  sacrifice  near  Cavannes,  in 
Switzerland. 

In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  horse-shoeing  was  practised 
in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  although  in  quite  a  different 
manner.  Professor  Dr  Olof  Pehrson  Bendz  of  Alnarp,  South 
Sweden,  states  that  these  shoes,  called  broddar,*  consisted  of  a 
kind  of  cramp  with  forward  prolongations,  the  points  of  which 


Brodd.  (Swed.)  =  Frost-nail 


broddningeu  =  to  shoe. 


10 


HISTORY   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


were  driven  through  the  wall  of  the  toe  and  clenched  (figs. 
4  and  5).  This  shoe  was  found  in  the  so-called  "  Schwartzen 
Bodenart,"  18  inches  below  the  surface ;  also  in  different  cairns 


Figs.  4  and  5. — The  most  ancient  NOitliern  shoe,  seen  from  hi  front  anil  from  Ijelow.    a,  toe- 
piece  or  grip  ;  b,  points  wliich  were  driven  thronj^h  the  wall  of  the  toe. 

in  Scandinavia,  and  in  Christian  graves,  as  well  as  in  the  Viking 
ship  discovered  in  Sandefiord,  Norway.  The  horse's  skeleton 
which  was  excavated  had  a  similar  shoe  on  each  foot.  In 
certain  parts  of  Finland  these  shoes  are  still  used,  under  the 
name  of  Biskari.*  So  far  as  we  can  judge,  this  broddar  shoe 
was  intended  more  to  prevent  slipping  than  for  general  use. 

The  first  written  descriptions  of  shoeing  are  found  in  the 
Military  Eegulations  of  Emperor  Leo  IV.  of  Constantinople 
(ninth  century),  in  which  crescent-shaped  shoes  with  nails  are 
specially  mentioned.  French  investigators  believe  that  the 
farrier's  art  was  introduced  into  the  West  Eoman  Empire  at 
the  time  of    the    barbaric  invasion  by  some    Germanic  race. 

After  the  ninth  century  shoeing  with  nails  became  general,  as 
is  shown  by  precise  references.  According  to  Goyau  and  others^ 
the  old  law-books  like  the  Code  Venedofien,  Sachsenspiegel,  and 
Gottesfrieden  contain  passages  referring  to  horse-shoeing. 

Duke  Boniface  of  Tuscany,  on  his  marriage  in  1034,  had  his 
horse    shod    with    silver    shoes.      In    1130    the  horse  of    the 

*  Liingwitz  refers  to  a  very  old  Finnish  shoe  which  was  sent  to  him  by  Herr 
Grossman,  teacher  of  farriery  in  Dorpat.  It  is  only  a  semicircle,  and  seems  to 
have  been  used  for  the  outer  half  of  the  hoof.  It  has  a  low  calkin  at  either  end^ 
and  was  fastened  with  nails. 


HISTOEY   OF   HOESE-SHOEING.  11 

Norwegian  King  Sigard  the  Crusader  was  shod  with  crescent- 
shaped  golden  shoes  on  his  entry  into  Constantinople. 

Father  Daniel,  however,  states  in  his  writings  on  horse- 
shoeing, that  the  hoof  was  only  shod  in  frosty  weather,  or  when 
exposed  to  special  w^ear,  as  in  travelling. 

The  history  of  Sicily  shows  that  shoeing  was  known  there 
in  the  eleventh  century.  At  that  time  Sicily  was  held  by  the 
Saracens  ;  and  when  they  disagreed  amongst  themselves  and 
went  to  war,  the  weaker  party  called  in  the  aid  of  Grecian 
cavalry.  The  combined  forces  defeated  their  opponents,  who 
in  retreat  threw  behind  them  sharply-pointed  spikes,  in  order 
to  hinder  the  pursuers.  But  "  the  horses'  feet  were  so  shod 
that  the  spikes  could  not  injure  them,  nor  impede  the  pursuit." 

"William  the  Conqueror  is  said  to  have  found  horse-shoeing 
practised  in  England  on  his  arrival  in  1066,  but  others  believe 
he  introduced  it.  He  commissioned  one  of  his  noblemen, 
Wakelin  von  Ferrariis,  whom  he  promoted  to  be  Count  of 
Ferrers  and  Derby,  to  superintend  and  encourage  the  art  of 
farriery.  The  shield  of  the  Ferrers  family  carries  six  black 
shoes  on  a  silver  ground.  Their  castellan  at  Oakham,  in  the 
county  of  Eutland,  has  the  privilege  of  demanding  a  horse-shoe 
as  tribute  from  every  nobleman  or  baron  of  the  Kingdom  on  his 
first  journey  through  the  town.  The  shoes,  together  with  the 
giver's  name,  are  affixed  to  the  door  of  the  castle.* 

In  the  year  1214  references  are  made  to  the  art  in  French 
history.  On  the  occasion  of  bringing  Count  Ferrand  of  Flanders 
to  Paris  as  a  prisoner,  it  is  mentioned  that  "  four  well-shod 
horses "  drew  Ferrand's  carriage,  —  a  proof  that  shoeing  was 
then  knoW'U.  After  this  time  it  is  frequently  referred  to,  as  in 
the  works  of  Eufo  in  1492,  of  Laurentius  Eusius,  who  in  1531 
wrote  a  work  on  veterinary  science,  in  which  he  devoted 
especial  attention  to  shoeing,  the  treatment  of  deformed  feet, 
and  to  injuries  from  nails ;  and  especially  of  Cesare  Fiaschi 
(first  edition,  1539),  and  of  Carlo  Euini  in  1598. 

Fiaschi  describes  and  figures  shoes  for  many  varying  purposes, 
his  illustrations  being  the  first  in  the  literature  of  farriery. 
This  author  distinguishes  not  only  between  front  and  hind  shoes, 
but  between  right  and  left,  and  between  shoes  wdth  and  without 

*  This  right  is  still  in  existence,  and  was  exercised  as  late  as  the  present  year 
(1897).— Jno.  a.  W.  D. 


12 


HISTORY   OF   HOKSE-SHOEING. 


heels  and  toepieces,  hinged  shoes  and  shoes  with  rounded  toe. 
He  already  makes  a  clear  difference  between  toe,  quarter,  and 
heel  clips.  He  employs  shoes  with  rings  in  the  heels  in  order 
to  give  increased  shoulder  action.      It,  therefore,  seems  right  to 

regard  Italy  as  the 
country  of  origin  of 
systematic   horse-shoe- 


J 


Fig.  6. 


In  Germany  the  art 
attained  prominence 
towards  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 
Seuter  of  Augsburg  in 
1598  published  a  book 
on  the  medical  care  of 
animals,  in  which  are 
described  special  shoes 
for  the  treatment  of 
contracted  feet. 

Most  of  the  ancient 
horse-shoes  found  in 
Germany  resemble 
more  or  less  those 
shown  in  figs.  6,  7,  and 
8.  The  broad  shoes 
are  often  described  as 
Swedish,  though  it  is 
by  no  means  proved 
that  this  form  origin- 
ated in  Sweden.  On 
the  contrary,  ac- 
.    .  ^    c,        . .,    ,...,,  ,  cording   to   Schmid   of 

Figs.  6  and  7.— Shoes  of  the  Middle  Ages  (about  the  13th  ,  ° 

century),    found    in    excavating   foundations    for    the    Muuich       broad      sllOeS 
Gymnasium  at  Borna  in  1876.  ' 

had  been  employed  in 
Germany  for  a  long  time  before  the  invasion  from  Sweden. 

In  France,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  appeared  Solleysel's 
Far  fait  Marechal.  This  book  was  translated  into  many 
languages,  but,  according  to  Veterinary-Surgeon  Megnin,  was 
only  a  paraphrase  of  Fiaschi's  work.  Solleysel's  shoe  is 
moderately  broad,  and  provided  with  eight  nail-holes,  placed  well 


Fig. 


HISTORY   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 


13 


forward.  The  author  was  the  first  to  notice  the  slipper-shoe, 
with  its  bearing  surface  inchned  outwards,  named  after  De  la 
Broue.  In  Germany,  during  this  century,  horse-shoeing  was 
only  slightly  touched  on  in  veterinary  works, — the  Thirty  Years' 
War  retarding  the  development  and  advance  of  science.  With 
the  institution  of  veterinary  schools  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
the  farrier's  art  once  more  rose  to  prominence,  mainly  owing 
to  the  discoveries  in  connection  with  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  the  horse's  hoof.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  literature  of  farriery  received  many 
important  addi- 


tions; and  the 
improvement  of 
horse  -  breeding, 
due  to  the  intro- 
duction of  Ori- 
ental blood,  had 
an  indirect  though 
sensiblv  beneficial 
action  in  advanc- 
ing the  art. 

In  France,  dur- 
ing the  course  of 
the  eighteenth 
century,  a  work 
on    horse  -  shoeing 

was  published  by  Lafosse  the  elder,  in  which  was  recommended 
a  special  shoe, — thick  at  the  toe,  thinner  towards  the  heels,  flat 
on  the  ground  surface,  and  provided  with  eight  nail-holes,  equally 
distributed  throughout  its  extent.  Lafosse  clearly  recognised 
the  advantage  of  allowing  the  frog  to  touch  the  ground.  To 
minimise  slipping  on  smooth  pavement,  he  suggested  a  system 
of  shoeing  which  presents  a  striking , likeness  to  the  Charlier 
method,  introduced  a  hundred  years  later.  In  1768  Bourgelat, 
the  founder  of  the  first  veterinary  school  at  Lyons,  described 
with  great  exactness  the  proportions  for  fore-shoes,  and  the 
height  of  the  heels  and  toepieces.  His  shoe  is  long  and 
trough-shaped ;  and  when  seen  from  the  side,  presents  a  certain 
resemblance  in  outline  to  a  boat.  While  the  French  owe  to 
these  two  authors  a  large  debt  of  gratitude  for  their  efforts  in 


Fig.  8. 


14  HISTORY   OF   HOESE-SHOEING. 

perfecting  horse-shoeing,  other  European  nations  have  to  thank 
English  veterinarians  of  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  and  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  centuries  for  much  of  the  improvement  then 
observable.  Up  to  the  end  of  last  century  the  farrier's  craft 
depended  upon  very  defective  anatomical  knowledge,  while  it 
had  absolutely  no  physiological  basis.  Shoeing  was  done  by 
rule  of  thumb. 

J.  Clark  first  drew  attention  to  the  elasticity  of  the  hoof, 
and  was  followed  by  Osmer,  Coleman,  Moorcroft,  and  Goodwin, 
who  invented  shoes  differing  completely  from  those  previously 
employed.  Most  of  these  were  fashioned  with  a  knowledge  of 
the  elasticity  of  the  hoof,  as  is  shown  by  their  horizontal  and 
seated-out  foot  surface  ;  Goodwin's  is  the  only  shoe  concave  on 
the  ground  surface,  but  like  the  others  it  shows  a  completely 
level  bearing  for  the  hoof  and  a  rounded  toe. 

Goodwin  was  the  first  to  use  seven,  instead  of  eight  nail-lioles, 
four  being  on  the  outer  and  three  on  the  inner  side,  as  shown 
in  his  illustrations. 

The  greatest  impression,  however,  was  produced  by  Bracy 
Clark's  writings  on  the  general  anatomical  formation  of  the 
foot  and  the  elasticity  of  the  horny  box.  This  author 
advanced  the  theory  of  the  expansion  of  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  hoof  during  movement,  and  the  simultaneous  sinking  of 
the  frog  and  flattening  of  the  sole,  from  which  originated  many 
new  views  and  experiments.  On  it  he  founded  the  use  of  a 
shoe  hinged  at  the  toe,  by  which  he  sought  to  allow  of  expan- 
sion and  contraction  when  weight  was  placed  on  or  removed 
from  the  foot.  Although  his  shoe  met  with  little  acceptance, 
Clark  rendered  great  service  by  drawing  attention  to  the 
injurious  contraction  of  the  foot  which  followed  the  existent 
system  of  shoeing.  He  advocated  turning  out  horses  unshod 
in  order  to  promote  expansion  of  the  foot,  and  made  important 
contributions  to  the  study  of  laminitis.  His  views  on  the 
changes  of  form  produced  in  the  hoof  by  pressure  were  adopted 
by  the  Germans  and  French,  and  provided  a  scientific  basis  for 
the  practice  of  farriery. 

Until  the  middle  of  the  present  century  the  German  horse- 
shoe was  almost  always  provided  with  calkins  and  usually 
exhibited  eight  nail-holes.  It  was  very  broad,  and  had  open 
heels,  the   inner  of   which  was  about  one- third  thinner  than 


HISTORY   OF   IIOKSE-SHOEING.  15 

the  outer  heel.  In  short,  it  was  far  from  conforming  to  the 
shape  of  the  hoof,  and  had  many  bad  points.  Well-formed 
shoes,  like  well-formed  hoofs,  were  rare  ;  and  whilst  in  many 
parts  of  England  great  progress  had  been  made,  Germany  con- 
tinued in  the  old  ways.  Only  Hanover,  which  for  a  long  time 
had  been  under  English  influence,  presented  any  exception. 
The  hoof  was  prepared  for  the  shoe  to  such  a  degree  that  the 
sole  could  be  indented  with  the  finger,  and  was  excessively 
weakened.  The  toe  was  usually  left  too  long  in  proportion  to 
the  heels,  and  heavy  badly-shaped  shoes  which  pinched  the  heels 
were  applied.  Even  model  shoes  of  this  period  exhibit  many 
defects.  In  spite  of  a  number  of  good  books  on  farriery,  such  as 
those  of  Dieterich,  Gros,  and  Straus,  in  which  the  functions  and 
anatomy  of  the  foot  are  described,  the  art  of  farriery  was  much 
neglected,  and  farriers,  as  a  class,  were  wanting  in  the  knowledge 
necessary  to  combine  science  with  practice. 

At  the  beginning  of  1840  an  attempt  was  made  to  introduce 
from  France  the  method  of  hot  fitting,  and  the  use  of  Eiquet's 
pedometer,  but  althougli  previously  employed  for  many  years 
in  the  French  army,  these  w^ere  soon  given  up  in  Germany, 
because  of  their  unpractical  nature.  Xor  did  Pauly's  attempt 
to  dispense  with  nails  meet  with  any  greater  success. 

In  1852  a  further  stimulus  to  the  art  was  given  by  English 
intiuence  in  Miles's  hrochurc  on  The  Horse's  Hoof,  and  hoiv  to 
keep  it  Healthy,  the  7th  edition  of  w^hich  was  translated  by 
Guitard.  This  book  gradually  produced  an  entire  change  of 
views.  Miles  was  the  first  to  show  how  the  shoe  should  be 
fitted  to  the  foot,  and  how  it  should  be  made  in  order  to 
preserve  the  elasticity  of  the  hoof  when  shod  :  he  recommended 
six  nail-holes,  but  used  only  five  nails  ;  and  he  suggested  round- 
ing the  toe,  so  as  to  conform  to  the  natural  wear  of  the  hoof. 
Although  much  of  his  teaching  is  erroneous,  his  writings  have  an 
enduring  value.  Even  at  the  present  day  their  infiuence  can 
be  distinctly  seen  in  the  shoeing  system  of  the  Austrian  army. 

In  Saxony,  Hartmann's  attejnpts  to  break  with  old  tradi- 
tions are  w^orthy  of  notice.  Hartmann  and  Leisering's  work 
on  the  horse's  foot,  published  at  Dresden  in  1861,  produced  a 
marked  impression,  both  on  account  of  the  excellent  illustrations 
relating  to  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  foot,  and  of  the 
principles   set   forth   in   the   second   part   for   the   practice   of 


16  HISTORY   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

shoeing.  Hartmann's  shoe  resembled  the  English  in  regard 
to  its  fullering  and  seating,  but  its  fitting  and  bearing  surfaces 
were  more  like  the  French  pattern.  This  author  maintained 
the  importance  of  the  frog  bearing  weight.  Count  von  Ein- 
siedel,  a  contemporary  of  Hartmann,  took  up  the  purely 
physiological  position.  The  system  of  shoeing  named  after 
him  is  based  on  the  views  of  the  English  authors  Miles  and 
Field.  He  recommended  for  front-feet  a  heelless  shoe,  of  equal 
breadth  throughout,  the  ground  and  bearing  surfaces  horizontal, 
well  seated  out,  moderately  rounded  at  the  toe,  and  having 
somewhat  finely  punched  nail-holes ;  for  hind-feet  the  '  inter- 
fering '  shoe.  His  exertions  largely  contributed  to  the  improve- 
ment of  shoeing  in  Saxony  and  Prussia. 

Charlier's  system,  inaugurated  in  1865,  which  consists  in 
sinking  the  shoe  in  the  wall  of  the  hoof,  thus  surrounding  the 
hoof  like  a  ferrule,  produces  precisely  the  opposite  effect  to 
that  desired.  Instead  of  preserving  the  hoof  it  destroys  it. 
Good  enough's  method,  published  in  1869,  was  less  injurious,  but 
only  suited  to  particular  purposes.  Its  object  was  to  promote 
the  natural  function  of  the  horny  sole  and  frog.  The  shoe  has 
five  prominences  on  its  ground  surface.  In  1879  this  method 
was  revived,  without,  however,  achieving  any  great  success. 

Dominik  took  up  a  purely  theoretical  standpoint  in  regard 
to  shoeino-.  He  believed  that  the  wall  of  the  hoof  should 
always  be  supported  at  right  angles  by  the  upper  surface  of  the 
shoe.  The  idea,  however,  is  not  practicable.  Nevertheless,  his 
observations  on  the  action  of  animals  before  and  after  shoeing, 
and  his  demonstrations,  proved  of  great  service. 

Since  1869  various  methods  of  roughing  have  been  introduced, 
and  have  proved  almost  indispensable  in  cold  countries.  The 
American,  Judson,  invented  the  round  frost  cog.  Dominik 
made  some,  but  preferred  the  quadrangular  form,  as  being 
simpler  to  produce.  Since  that  time  both  varieties  have  been 
successfully  employed. 

But  no  improvement  in  farriery  can  be  of  service  until  incor- 
porated in  the  daily  practice  of  the  shoeing-smith  ;  and,  abroad, 
this  has  only  been  possible  since  the  foundation,  in  the  middle 
of  the  present  century,  of  colleges  for  the  instruction  of  farriers. 
Previous  to  this,  only  students  attending  the  Veterinary  Colleges 
had  received  instruction,  but  at  the  present  time  special  in- 


HISTORY   OF   HORSE-SHOEING.  17 

stitutes  exist  throughout  Germany,  having  trained  teachers  and 
a  thorough  syllabus,  in  which  theory  and  practice  are  united. 
The  first  School  of  Farriery  was  erected  at  Gottesaue,  near 
Karlsruhe,  in  1847.  In  Saxony  the  military  authorities  soon 
followed  suit,  and  to  provide  capable  shoeing-smiths  for  the 
army,  military  farriers  were,  in  1849,  appointed  to  the  position 
of  teachers  of  horse-shoeing  in  the  Veterinary  School  at 
Dresden.  The  same  arrangement  still  exists.  Since  1853 
courses  of  instruction  in  horse-shoeing  for  civil  farriers  have 
been  given  in  Hanover,  and  since  1857  in  Dresden.  From  1858 
to  1869  the  authorities  in  Saxony  imposed  an  examination, 
that  is  to  say,  every  person  who  wished  to  practise  farriery 
was  obliged  to  pass  an  examination  in  the  Eoyal  Veterinary 
School.  In  1860  Count  von  Einsiedel's  School  of  Farriery  was 
appointed  the  Government  School  for  Upper  Lusatia.  Since 
1864  H.  Behrens  has  conducted  a  teaching  school  in  Eostock. 
Military  schools  of  farriery  were  founded  in  Berlin  in  1868, 
in  Konigsberg  in  1874,  in  Breslau  in  1875,  in  Hanover  in  1886, 
and  in  Bockenheim,  near  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  1890.  In 
1870  the  school  at  Altona  was  opened,  and  in  1877  the  Agri- 
cultural Union  at  Griefswald  founded  one  in  that  town.  In 
Bavaria  the  first  military  school  arose  in  1874.  Schools  for 
civilians  existed  in  Munich  and  Wlirzburg  in  1875.  In 
Austria  there  are  militarv  institutions  of  this  kind  in  Vienna, 
Brunn,  Olmiitz,  Prague,  Lemberg,  Graz,  Laibach,  Buda-Pesth, 
Comorn,  Temesvar,  and  Hermannstadt ;  schools  for  civilians  in 
Vienna,  Lemberg,  Graz  (1883),  Klagenfurt,  and  Laibach.  In 
addition,  classes  are  occasionally  held  in  different  districts. 

Similar  institutions  exist  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  Eussia,  and  the 
Balkan  Peninsula.  They  teach  shoeing,  promote  and  encourage 
exhibitions  of  farriery,  carry  out  competitions,  etc.,  and  their 
objects  are  set  forth  in  special  publications,  such  as  Der 
Hufschmied.  The  great  importance  attached  to  good  shoeing 
by  the  German  Government  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
Imperial  law  of  1883  allows  the  allied  States  to  make  it 
incumbent  on  all  persons  engaged  in  the  practice  of  farriery 
to  possess  a  certificate  of  examination.  In  consequence,  all  the 
countries  included  in  the  German  Empire  have  passed  similar 
laws  and  have  instituted  schools. 

In  regard  to  horse-shoeing.  Saxony  has  again  attained  the 

B 


18  HISTORY   OF   HORSE-SHOEING. 

position  which  it  occupied  before  1869.  Since  the  political 
renaissance  of  Germany,  and  especially  since  the  foundation  of 
an  Imperial  Patent  Office  in  Berlin,  the  farrier's  art  has  been 
the  subject  of  a  great  number  of  discoveries  and  inventions.  In 
every  department  novelties  have  been  introduced.  Iron  is  no 
longer  considered  sufhcient  for  shoeing^ :  oroanic  materials,  such 
as  leather,  cloth,  oakum,  rubber,  gutta-percha,  felt,  wool,  straw, 
horn,  cork,  wood,  and  so  on,  have  been  used,  either  alone  or  in 
combination  with  iron,  and  inventions  continue  to  be  produced. 

The  efforts  to  prevent  the  many  evils  inherent  in  our 
methods  of  shoeing  are  well  indicated  by  these  devices,  which 
aim  at  minimising  strains,  slips,  and  injuries  to  the  limbs. 
Patents  are  exceedingly  numerous.  Many  refer  to  movable 
toepieces  and  heels  and  to  nailless  shoes.  There  are  also 
shoes  to  be  applied  with  cement,  shoes  with  special  nails,  and 
shoes  to  insure  regular  distribution  of  weight,  etc. 

The  methods  of  shoeing  have  thus  become  so  numerous  that 
the  ordinary  farrier,  and  even  the  veterinary  surgeon,  can 
scarcely  keep  himself  informed  as  to  what  is  or  is  not  of  value, 
the  more  so  as  no  critical  treatise  has  yet  appeared  on  the 
subject.  Many  of  these  discoveries  are  absolutely  worthless  ; 
many  more  are  exceedingly  questionable.  Very  few  are  really 
valuable  or  of  great  promise,  but  machine-made  nails,  various 
forms  of  rubber  pads,  and,  especially,  machine-made  shoes  mark 
undoubted  advances.  The  reason  so  few  of  these  inventions 
are  of  real  worth  is  the  difficulty  of  exactly  fitting  them  to  the 
foot.  The  majority  of  inventors  have  incorrect  impressions  of 
horse-shoeing,  and  especially  of  the  formation  of  the  foot,  other- 
wise they  would  certainly  have  spared  themselves  the  pains, 
time,  and  money  which  they  have  expended. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  only  body  in  England 
claimiug  to  be  representative  of  farriery,  viz.,  the  Worshipful 
Company  of  Farriers  of  London,  when  in  1890-91  carrying 
into  operation  a  scheme  for  the  registration  of  shoeing-smiths, 
omitted  to  put  into  operation  the  most  promising  clauses  of 
their  published  programme,  and  instead  of  assisting  practical 
teaching  or  apprenticeship,  or  founding  one  or  more  teaching 
schools,  substituted  a  short  theoretical  examination  under  which 
hundreds  of  farriers  (sic)  were  enrolled.  The  attention  of  the 
public  was  drawn  to  the  matter,  and  a  reorganisation  attempted, 


HISTORY   OF   IIOKSE-SIIOEING.  19 

but  unfortunately  not  until  confidence  in  the  value  of  the 
Company's  certificate  luul  been  lost.  This  is  the  more  un- 
fortunate, as  it  must,  for  many  years  to  come,  have  a  most 
prejudicial  efiect  on  any  effort  made  to  improve  the  farrier's 
art  in  England. 

Considering  the  scope  and  difficulties  of  the  art  of  shoeing, 
it  is  desirable  that  the  efforts  made  during  the  last  fifteen  years 
by  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  and  other  bodies  to  produce 
good  practical  and  theoretical  farriers  should  be  still  further 
extended,  so  that  the  workman  may  fit  and  apply  the  shoe 
with  knowledge  of  the  etiect  it  will  produce  on  the  foot  and 
limb.  Without  awarding  the  preference  to  any  particular 
system  of  shoeing,  it  may  be  said  that  that  most  deserves  it 
which  least  alters  the  condition  and  form  of  the  hoof,  which 
is  simplest,  and  which  adapts  itself  most  readily  to  varying 
requirements. 


PART    I. 

THE  STRUCTURE  AND  FUNCTIONS 

OF  THE  FOOT. 


SECTIOX    I. 
THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  FOOT. 


GENERAL   REMARKS   ON   THE   HORSE'S 

FOOT. 

The  lower  portion  of  the  horse's  limb  is  called  the  foot.  As 
the  horse  is  of  little  value  to  man  except  as  a  beast  of  draught 
or  burden,  and  as  the  lower  portions  of  the  limbs  are  chiefly 
concerned  in  movement,  the  foot  is  one  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  the  horse's  anatomy.  The  reason  the  horse's  foot  is 
subject  to  so  many  diseases  is  to  be  sought  in  the  strains  and 
many  injurious  influences  to  which  it  is  exposed  both  when 
the  animal  is  at  rest  and  when  moving,  and  also  in  the  injury 
done  by  defective  shoeing  and  ignorant  attempts  at  treatment. 
Many  diseases  could  be  avoided  if  the  foot  were  regarded  not 
as  a  dead  mass  but  as  a  living  and  highly  organised  portion 
of  the  limb,  which  would  not  lightly  bear  interference  and 
unnatural  treatment,  while  many  more  would  be  more  easily 
and  rapidly  cured  if  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  parts 
were  clearly  kept  in  view. 

It  is,  therefore,  very  desirable  that  owners  and  attendants 
should  have  some  knowledge  of  this  portion  of  the  animal's 
anatomy,  while  to  the  shoeing-smith,  whose  duty  it  is  to  keep 
sound  feet  healthy,  and  to  the  veterinary  surgeon,  who  has  to 
convert  diseased  into  sound  feet,  a  thorough  acquaintance  with 
it  is  an  absolute  necessity. 

20 


GENERAL   RE.MARKS   OX    THE    HORSES   FOOT. 


21 


The  parts  of  the  limb  to  be  included  under  the  term  ''  foot " 
depend  on  the  purpose  with  which  the  expression  is  employed. 
Some  persons  regard  "  foot  "  as  including  only  the  portion  of 
the  limb  enclosed  in  the  horny  capsule.  Others,  again,  extend 
the  term  to  those  structures  in  the  horse  which  correspond 
to  the  foot  of  man,  that  is,  the  metatarsus  or  metacarpus 
and  all  below  it,  though,  according  to  this  view,  the  horse's 
fore-foot  should  include  the  knee,  and  the  hind-foot  the  hock 


Fig.  9. — Postero-lateral  view  of  right  fore-foot.  .1,  lower  eud  of  metacarpus ; 
B,  fetlock  joint;  C,  suftraginis  or  pastern  bone;  D,  coronet;  E,  hoof;  F 
and  F",  outer  and  inner  bulb  of  the  heel ;  G,  small  corneal  growth  at  back 
of  fetlock. 


joint.  Leisering's  detinition,  which  is  here  followed,  covers 
more  than  the  portions  surrounded  by  the  horny  capsule, 
though  holding  it  unnecessary  to  take  into  consideration  the 
entire  limb  from  the  knee  or  hock.  It  includes  the  fetlock 
joint  and  parts  of  the  limb  below,  i.e.,  the  structures  correspond- 
ing to  the  finger  or  toe  of  man. 

These  parts  are  represented  in  fig.  9. 


'?9 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF   THE    FOOT. 


Externally  we  distinoiiish  the  lower  end  of  the  metacarpus 
(A) :  the  fetlock  joint  (B)  ;  the  siiffraginis  (C) ;  the  coronet  (B) : 
the  hoof  and  parts  included  therein  (F) :  and  the  Inilbs  of  the 
heels  (F). 


Fig.  10.— Perpendicular  mesial  section  of  right  fore-foot  (tlie  position  of  tlie  lower 
l)one3  is  shown  rather  too  upright).  A.  lower  end  of  great  metacarpus:  B,  suft'ra- 
ginis  or  pastern  bone ;  C,  inner  sesamoid  bone  (to  render  the  bone  visible,  a  portion 
of  the  intersesamoidean  ligament  has  l)een  removed) ;  D,  coronet  bone  ;  L\  pedal 
bone ;  F,  navicular  bone  ;  a,  extensor  pedis  tendon  ;  b,  superior  sesamoideau  or  sus- 
pensory ligament ;  b',  inferior  sesamoideau  ligament :  c,  flexor  pedis  perforatus 
tendon :  c',  great  sesamoid  sheath :  (7,  flexor  pedis  perforans  tendon  :  e,  capsular 
ligament  of  the  fetlock  joint ;  /',  capsular  ligament  of  pastern  joint ;  (/  and  g', 
capsular  ligament  of  coffin  joint;  Ji,  bursa  of  flexor  pedis  perforans:  /,  plantar 
cushion  ;  i',  portion  of  plantar  cushion  forming  the  1ju11)s  of  the  heel :  k,  coronary 
baud ;  I,  sensitive  wall ;  m,  sensitive  sole :  n,  sensitive  frog ;  o,  horny  wall ;  ^>, 
horny  sole:  q,  horny  frog  ;  r,  ergot  at  base  of  fetlock  ;  s,  skin. 

At  the  first  glance  the  horse's  foot,  as  represented  in  fig. 
9,  might  appear  to  one  who  had  not  studied  its  construction 
to  be  exceedingly  simple.      By  making  a  perpendicular  mesial 


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GENERAL    REMARKS   ON   THE    HORSE'S   FOOT.  23 

section  of  the  foot,  however,  as  shown  in  fig.  10,  the 
erroneous  character  of  such  a  conclusion  is  evident,  and  yet  this 
section  exhibits  only  a  few  of  the  structures  constituting  the 
foot.  In  order  to  become  acquainted  with  the  form  and  func- 
tions of  the  foot,  one  nnist  study  each  part  separately  and  in 
a  certain  order. 

Many  writers  on  the  horse's  foot  begin  with  the  external 
parts  and  gradually  proceed  to  the  deeper  seated.  AVith  some 
care  all  the  anatomical  structures  can  thus  be  demonstrated  on 
one  foot,  but  much  then  remains  doubtful  which  would  certainly 
be  clear  by  observing  the  opposite  process  ;  for  this  reason  we 
commence  our  description  of  the  foot  with  the  bones. 


CHAPTEE    I. 

THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOOT. 

We  have  agreed  to  consider  the  horse's  foot  as  beginning  at 
the  fetlock  joint,  and  have,  therefore,  to  study  (1)  the  lower 
end  of  the  great  metacarpus ;  (2)  the  suffraginis  bone ;  (3)  the 
two  sesamoid  bones;  (4)  the  coronet  bone;  (5)  the  pedal  bone; 
and  (6)  the  navicular  bone.  The  relations  of  these  bones  are 
shown  in  fig.  11,  and  those  of  the  bones  to  surrounding  parts 
in  fig.  10. 

1.  The  Lower  End  of  the  Great  Metacarpus. 
(Figs.  10  and  11,  A.) 

The  metacarpus  or  cannon  is  the  long  bone  which  begins  at 
the  knee,  and  is  continued  downwards  in  an  almost  perpen- 
dicular direction  to  the  fetlock  joint.  Its  lower  end  presents 
an  articular  surface  extending  from  side  to  side,  covered  with 
articular  cartilage  and  rendered  irregular  by  three  prominences 
and  two  depressions.  The  middle  prominence  or  ridge  extends 
furthest  forward,  and  is  the  highest  both  in  front  and  behind. 
The  lateral  prominences  are  broader,  and  are  separated  from 
the  middle  prominence  by  two  shallow  depressions.  At  the 
sides  of  the  lower  end  of  the  metacarpus  are  two  rough  grooves 
for  the  attachment  of  ligaments.  The  articular  surface  is  in 
contact  with  that  of  the  os  suffraginis  both  in  front  and  below, 
while  behind  and  below  the  joint  is  completed  by  the  anterior 
surfaces  of  the  sesamoid  bones. 

2.  The  Suffraginis  Bone  or  First  Phalanx 
(Figs.  10  and  11,  B;  Figs.  12  and  13,  A) 

Extends  between  the  great  metacarpus  and  coronet  bone  or 
second  phalanx  in  an  oblique  direction  downwards  and  forwards, 

24 


THE   SUFFRAGINIS    BONE. 


25 


and  forms  with  the  metacarpus  an  angle  of  about  130  to  140 
degrees.      In  the  liind-limbs  this  angle  is  greater  than  in  the 
fore,  being  usually  about  150  degrees.      The  suffraginis  bone  is, 
roughly,   one-third 
the  length  of    the  111 

metacarpus,  though 
a  slio-ht  difference 
exists  in  this  re- 
spect between  the 
fore  and  hind  limbs, 
the  metacarpus 
beincr  somewhat 
shorter  than  the 
metatarsus.  The 
suffraginis  bone  is 


Antei-o-lateral  view  of  bones  of  foot.  ^4,  lower  end  of 
metacarpus  ;  B,  pastern  ;  C,  outer  sesamoid  ;  D,  coronet ;  E, 
pedal  bone. 


divided  into  an 
upper,  middle,  and 
a  lower  portion. 

The  upper 
portion  is  the 
strongest,  and  pre- 
sents an  articular 
surface  (fig.  12,  a), 
which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a 
somewhat  promi-  ^lo.  n. 
nent  border.  It 
responds      exactly 

to  tlie  anterior  half  of  the  lower  extremity  of  the  metacarpus 
or  metatarsus.  The  centre  of  its  articular  surface  presents  a 
marked  depression  for  the  middle  prominence  of  the  metacarpus 
or  shin  bone,  and  on  either  side  two  shallow  depressions  for  the 
lateral  prominences  of  the  shin  bone.  The  mass  of  bony  tissue 
forming  the  upper  part  terminates  on  either  side  in  a  prominence 
directed  backwards  and  outwards,  to  which  the  ligaments  of 
the  joint  are  attached. 

The  middle  portion  possesses  an  anterior,  a  posterior,  and  two 
lateral  surfaces.  The  anterior  is  slightly  rounded  and  fairly 
smooth  ;  the  posterior  is  flatter,  and  exhibits  a  well-marked 
roughened  triangle  (fig.   13,  a).      This  runs  from  each  of  the 


26 


THE    BONES   OF   THE    FOOT. 


lateral  prominences  already  mentioned  in  a  downward  direction 
almost  as  far  as  the  lower  end  of  the  bone.  The  triangular 
surface  thus  formed  is  rough  for  tlie  insertion  of  ligaments. 
The  lateral  surfaces  of  the  bone  are  rounded  and  very  rough 
towards  the  base. 

The  lower  end  of  the  bone  is  smooth  and  covered  with  carti- 


^i 


Fig.  12.— i'astern  and  sesamoideal  bones 
seen  from  same  point  as  fig.  10.  A, 
pastern;  />,  sesamoid  bones;  a,  npper 
articular  surface  of  pastern  ;  b,  do.  of 
sesamoids;  c  and  d,  rough  surfaces  for 
insertion  of  ligaments;  e,  lower  arti- 
cular surface. 


Fig.  13. —Posterior  view  of  pastern 
and  sesamoid  bones.  A,  pastern  ;. 
B,  sesamoids  ;  n,  rough  triangle  for 
ligamentous  iusei'tion :  b,  surface 
for  insertion  of  superior  sesamoideau 
ligament ;  c,  surface  covered  (in 
lite)  by  intersesamoidean  ligament. 


lage.  Its  centre  presents  a  slight  depression  (tig.  12,  e),  and  on 
either  side  a  prominence,  the  inner  being  somewhat  larger  than 
the  outer  and  projecting  rather  further  backwards.  Above 
these  prominences  are  rough  surfaces  for  the  insertion  of  liga- 
ments (fig.  12,  d). 


o 

O. 


The  two  Sesamoid  Bones 
(Figs.  10  and  11,  C ;  Figs.  12  and  13,  B) 

Are  small  rounded  pyramidal  bones  lying  at  the  back  of  the 
lower  portion  of  the  great  metacarpus.  They  appear  to  con- 
tinue the  suffraii^dnis  bone.  Each  has  three  surfaces,  a  summit 
and  a  base.  The  anterior  surface  (fig.  12,  h)  is  slightly  concave, 
almost  triangular,  and  covered  with  articular  cartilage.  The 
opposed  borders  of  the  two  bones  are  so  rounded  off  that  when 
in  position  they  enclose  a  groove  corresponding  to  and  con- 
tinuing the  central  groove  on  the  upper  end  of  the  suffraginis 
bone.      The  two  sesamoids,  combined  with  the   suffraginis  bone. 


THE   CORONET   BONE. 


27 


form  a  surface  which  responds  to  that  of  the  great  metacarpus, 
with  which  they  are  in  contact.  The  outer  surface  of  the 
external  sesamoid  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  internal  are 
very  rough,  and  show  marked  depressions  for  the  insertion  of 
ligaments.  The  two  remaining  surfaces  of  the  bones  (fig.  13,  c) 
are  convex  and  smooth  ;  in  front  they  are  in  contact,  posteriorly 
they  recede  more  and  more  from  each  other,  and  when  in 
position  form  a  groove  filled  with  cartilage  in  the  living  animal, 
over  which  the  flexor  tendons  play. 

The  upper  end  or  apex  is  pointed  and  formed  by  the  con- 
vergence of  all  three  surfaces.  The  lower  end  or  base  is 
rounded   off. 


4.  The  Cokonet  Bone  or  Second  Phalanx 
(Figs.  10  and  11,  D\  Figs.  14  and  15) 

Lies  below  the  suffraginis  but  above  the  pedal  and  navicular 
bones.  It  is  approximately  one-half  the  size  of  the  suffraginis. 
In  form  it  resembles  a  cube,  slightly  compressed  from  before  to 


Fig.  14.— Antero-lateral  viewof  coronet 
bone.  «,  upper  articular  surface  ;  b, 
anterior  surface  ;  c,  lateral  surface  ; 
d,  lower  articular  surface. 


Fig.  15. — Posterit>r  view  of  coronet 
bone,  a,  smooth  facet,  over  which 
the  flexor  pedis  peiforans  tendon 
glides:  h,  lower  articular  surface. 


behind.  It,  therefore,  presents  six  surfaces.  The  upper  and 
lower  are  for  articulation  ;  the  upper  shows  two  lateral  depres- 
sions and  a  very  slight  central  prominence  ;  the  lower  (figs.  14 
and  15,  h)  in  this  respect  resembling  the  lower  end  of  the 
suffraginis  bone,  two  lateral  prominences  and  a  central  depres- 
sion. The  anterior  edge  of  the  upper  articular  surface  exhibits 
a  broad,  low  projection.  Towards  the  sides  this  edge  is 
sharp,  behind  strong  and  rounded :  powerful  ligaments  are 
attached  to  it.  Behind  is  a  smooth  area  (fig.  15,  «),  wdiich 
serves  as  a  gliding  surface  for  the  flexor  pedis  perforans  tendon. 
The  anterior  and  posterior  surfaces  (figs.  14,  h,  and  15)  are,  when 


28 


THE   BONES   OF   THE   FOOT. 


healthy,  tolerably  smooth,  and  are  perforated  with  a  multitude 
of  little  holes.  The  lateral  surfaces  (fig.  14,  c),  on  the  other 
hand,  are  always  rough. 


-  a» 


5.  The  Pedal  Bone  or  Third  Phalanx 
(Figs.  10  and  11,  E:  Figs.  16,  17,  18) 

Is  the  lowest  bone  of  the  foot,  and  is  entirely  surrounded  by 
the  hoof  and  by  soft  tissues.      It  presents  three  surfaces,  three 

prominences,  and  three  borders. 
The  anterior  surface  responds  to 
the  wall  of  the  hoof  (fig.  16,  a, 
and  fig.  17).  In  general,  it  takes 
the  same  form  as  the  hoof,  that 
is,  it  is  convex  from  side  to  side, 
is  crescent-shaped,  and  runs 
obliquely  downwards  and  for- 
PiG.  i6.-Ant'ero-iaterai  view  ,.f  pedal  wards  or  outwards.     The  autcrior 

bone,  ff,  anterior  surface,  which  is  pro-    „„-.t.  ^f    ^Up  n-ni-inr  hnvrlpr  cjhnw<?  n 
longed  upwards  to  form  the  pyramidal    V^^^  ^^    ^^^^  Uppcr    001  Oer  bHOWb  A 

process  ;/>,  upper  or  articular  surface  ;    ,..„«Vp,l      nrmm'npnpp       whiph      hfm 
c,  outer  wing  of  pedal  l)one:</,  notch,     marKeCl     piommeuce,      WHILU      Jldb 

been  called  the  coronoid  process, 
but  has  been  more  correctly  de- 
scribed as  the  pyramidal  process  of 
anatomists.  The  backward  continuation  of  the  outer  surface 
forms  on  either  side  a  process,  termed  the  wing  of  the  pedal 
bone  (fig.  16,  c.c). 

The  coronoid  or  pyramidal  process  is  the  highest  point  of  the 
pedal  bone ;  from  it  the  borders  gradually  descend  backwards 
towards  the  wings.  Each  of  the  wings  is  marked  by  a  deep 
depression,  the  preplantar  groove,  which  extends  forwards  to 
about  the  centre  of  the  quarter,  where  it  disappears.  This 
surface  is  pierced  by  a  large  number  of  holes  and  fine  grooves 
giving  the  bone  an  appearance  somewhat  resembling  pumice- 
stone. 

The  %ipper  surface  (fig.  16,  l,  and  fig.  17)  is  for  articulation 
with  the  coronet  bone,  but  being  too  small  to  engage  with  the 
whole  articular  surface  of  that  bone,  it  is  completed  behind  by 
the  navicular  bone.  As  a  whole,  this  upper  surface  is  crescent- 
shaped,  and  falls  rapidly  away  in  a  backward  and  downward 
direction.     The  centre  shows    a  slight  prominence,  the   sides 


which  in  cases  of  "sidebone"  is  often 
converted  into  a  foramen.  The  portion 
of  the  wing  above  this  is  termed  the 
basilar,  that  below  the  retrossal  pro- 
cess ;  e,  preplantar  groove. 


5n 

5^ 


CO 

Esq 


To  face  p.  28.] 


THE   PEDAL   BONE. 


29 


Fig.  it. — Postero-lateral  view  of  pedal  l)one  ;  in  this  figure 
the  eutire  upper  surface  is  not  visible.  B,  inner  lateral 
cartilase. 


shallow  depressions.      On  the  posterior  edge  of  this  surface  is  a 
narrow  elongated  facet,  to  which  the  navicular  bone  is  applied 
(fig.  24).      The  lower   or  plantar  surface  (fig.   18)  is  slightly 
concave,  so  that  when  the  bone   is    resting  on  a  plane  only 
the    external    margin 
actually     touches    it. 
This  surface  presents 
two  half-moon-shaped 
portions,  of  which  the 
posterior    is    smaller 
and    thrust    into   the 
anterior.   The  anterior 
(fig.  18,  a)  is  covered 
by  the  sensitive  sole 
and  is  fairly  smooth ; 
at  the  back,  however, 
where  the  body  of  the 
bone  becomes  continuous  with  the  wings  (fig.  1 8,  b),  it  is  rough 
and  full  of  holes.      The  posterior,  and  smaller,  portion  appears 
as  though  cut  out  of  the  anterior ;  and   the  border  (fig.  18,  c) 
which  divides  it  from  the  anterior  part  is  rough  for  the  insertion 
of  the  flexor  pedis  perforans  ten- 
don.     In  the  centre,  close  behind 
this  border,  is  a  protuberance  con- 
sistino;   of    firm,   bonv    substance, 
and  serving  for  the  insertion  of  a 
ligament. 

On  either  side  of  this  protuber- 
ance is  the  mouth  of  a  canal  (fig. 
16,  d),  the  plantar  foramen,  from 

which  a  groove,  termed  the  plantar  fig.  is.— inferior  surface  of  pedal  bone. 

•=•  «,  anterior  portion  covered  in  life  by 

groove      runs.         These     canals     are  sensitive  sole ;  6,  wing  of  pedal  bone'.- 

o              '                                               _  the  part  shown  is  retrossal  process ;  c, 

continued    into    the    interior  of    the  rough  crescent-shaped  portion  for  in- 
sertion of  flexor  pedis  perforans ;  d, 

pedal     bone     and    meet,    forming    a  plantar  groove  leading  to  e,  plantar 

^                                                                            ,  foramen. 

semicircle,  from  which  are  given 

off  in  various  directions  numerous  small  secondary  canals.  The 
grooves,  holes,  and  canals  permit  of  tlie  passage  of  blood-vessels 
and  nerves  (compare  fig.  38). 

The  coronoid  or  pyramidal  process,  already  mentioned,  serves 
for  the  insertion  of  the  extensor  pedis  tendon.     The  two  wings 


o 


0  THE   BONES   OF   THE    TOOT. 


of  the  bone  are  most  widely  separated  at  the  back  (fig.  16,  d). 
Each  wing  is  divided  by  a  notch,  continuous  with  the  pre- 
plantar  groove,  into  an  upper  and  lower  portion,  though  in  old 
horses  the  two  parts  may  be  united  by  exostoses,  and  instead 
of  a  notch  a  hole  alone  exists.  To  the  wings  are  attached  the 
lateral  cartilages  (fig.  17,  B),  which  we  shall  afterwards  describe 
more  fully.  It  not  unfrequently  occurs  that  these  cartilages 
become  ossified,  especially  at  their  point  of  origin,  causing  the 
wings  of  the  bone  to  appear  much  larger  than  they  really  are. 

The  three  borders  of  the  pedal  bone  are :  an  upper,  a  lower, 
and  a  posterior.  The  upper  border  runs  from  one  wing  to  the 
other,  first  in  a  forward  and  upward,  then  in  a  downward  and 
backward,  direction,  and  divides  the  articular  from  the  anterior 
surface.  It  is  continued  over  the  pyramidal  process,  and  is 
somewhat  excavated  and  rough  on  either  side  for  the  insertion 
of  ligaments. 

The  lower  border  divides  the  anterior  from  the  plantar  surface, 
and  is  sharp  and  well-defined.  Its  centre  point  often  shows  a 
slight  notch.  As  the  os  pedis  is  somewhat  inclined  in  the 
normal  position  of  the  hoof,  as  shown  by  the  section  (fig.  10), 
the  anterior  part  of  this  border  is  the  low^est  portion  of  bone 
in  the  limb.  Just  above  the  border  are  a  number  of  large 
holes  for  the   passage  of  arteries. 

The  posterior  border  divides  the  articular  from  the  plantar 
surface,  and  runs  obliquely  from  one  wing  of  the  os  pedis  to  the 
other.      Posteriorlv,  it  is  in  contact  with  the  navicular  bone. 

6.  The  Naviculak  Bone. 
(Fig.  10,  F,  and  Figs.  19  and  20.) 

This  is  a  short,  transversely  elongated  bone  placed  between  the 
wings  of  the  pedal  bone,  articulating  with  the  posterior  edge  of 
its  upper  surface,  and  assisting  to  form  the  cavity  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  lower  end  of  the  coronet  bone.  It  possesses  an 
anterior  and  a  posterior  surface,  an  upper  and  a  lower  edge,  and 
an  inner  and  an  outer  extremity. 

The  anterior  surface  is  also  directed  slightly  upwards,  and  is 
covered  with  articular  cartilage.  A  vertical  ridge  divides  the 
surface  into  two  unequal  portions,  the  inner  of  which  is  the 
larger  ;  both  are  concave,  and  with  the  ridge  continue  posteriorly 


THE   NAVICULAR   BONE. 


31 


¥lG.  19.  —  Anteio- 
superior  surface 
vt  navicular 

bone. 


Fig.  20.— Postero-inferior 
surface  of  navicular 
bone.  a,  anterior 
border ;  b,  tendinous 
surface. 


the  conformation  of  the  articular  surface  of  the  pedal  bone. 
The  posterior  surface  is  more  extensive  than  the  anterior,  and  it 
looks  downwards  as  well  as  backwards.  Generally  it  resembles 
the  anterior,  but  is  not  so  smooth.  Over  this  surface  the  flexor 
pedis  perforans  tendon  plays.  Of  the  two  edges  the  upper  is 
less  extensive,  rough  and  porous  in  appearance,  and  receives 
the  insertion  of  the  postero- 
lateral lioaments  of  the  cottin 
joint.  (To  be  afterwards  de- 
scribed.) The  lower  edge  is 
divided  into  two  portions — 
one,  the  anterior,  carries  a 
narrow,  elongated  smooth 
area  for  articulation  with  the  pedal  bone,  the  other,  or  posterior 
poition,  is  rough,  showing  the  openings  of  numerous  small 
canals,  and  provided  for  the  insertion  of  the  interosseous  liga- 
ment that  binds  the  navicular  to  the  pedal  bone.  The  two 
extremities  of  the  bone,  inner  and  outer,  are  bluntly  rounded 
and  tapering,  and  show  nothing  worthy  of  note. 

The  foregoing  remarks  on  the  bones  of  the  foot  apply  equally 
to  the  fore  and  hind  extremities.  It  need  only  be  remarked 
that  the  bones  of  the  hind  foot  are  somewhat  longer  and  more 
slender  than  those  of  the  fore.  The  posterior  os  pedis,  being 
laterally  compressed,  has  a  more  upright  appearance,  while  its 
plantar  surface  is  more  concave  than  that  of   the  fore-limb. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  LIGAMENTOUS  STRUCTURES  OF  THE  FOOT. 

The  tissues  connecting  the  bones  of  the  foot  are  termed  liga- 
ments. The  capsular  ligaments  surround  all  the  bony  elements 
of  the  joint  like  a  sheath  or  capsule,  and  consist  of  two  super- 
posed layers. 

The  external  layer  is  firm  and  fibrous,  and  in  certain  of  the 
joints  is  exceptionally  developed.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a 
prolongation  of  a  portion  of  the  periosteum  from  one  bone  to 
another. 

The  inner  or  synovial  layer  is  a  soft,  delicate,  and  vascular 
tissue,  which  clothes  the  interior  of  the  outer  sheath,  and  is 
intimately  connected  with  it.  This  sheath,  however,  is  not  con- 
tinued on  to  the  articular  surface  of  the  bone,  as  was  formerly 
supposed,  and,  therefore,  does  not  form  in  itself  a  closed  sack. 
Its  function  is  to  secrete  the  fluid  which  lubricates  the  joint 
and  facilitates  movement.  This  fluid  is  mucoid  and  sticky, 
closely  resembling  egg-albumen,  is  of  a  yellowish-white  or 
yellowish-red  colour,  and  is  termed  synovia  or  joint  oil. 

The  lateral  and  other  ligaments  consist  of  whitish,  glistening, 
fibrous  material,  and  form  strong  bonds  of  union,  varying  in 
thickness  and  length,  between  one  bone  and  another.  They 
possess  enormous  strength,  so  that  they  rarely  rupture,  the 
bones  into  which  they  are  inserted  usually  breaking  more 
readily  than  the  ligaments.  Their  points  of  attachment  on  the 
bones  are  usually  rough  and  uneven. 

The  joints  we  have  been  considering  are  known  as  gingly- 
moid  or  hinge-like,  and  only  permit  of  flexion  and  extension. 
Movement  is  certainly  considerable,  but  only  occurs  in  one 
plane.  Lateral  displacement  is  either  impossible  or  only 
practicable  in  a  very  slight  degree.  Such  articulations  may  be 
compared  to  those  of  a  pocket-knife  or  of  a  door.     In  a  gingly- 

32 


THE   FETLOCK   JOINT.  33 

moid  joint  a  convex  surface  glides  upon  a  concave  surface  (the 
two  surfaces  being  more  or  less  adapted  one  for  the  other). 

To  facilitate  this  backward  and  forward  movement  it  is 
necessary  that  the  surfaces  be  smooth,  and  that  they  be 
lubricated.  Both  requirements  have  been  provided  for  in  the 
most  complete  manner.  The  articular  surfaces  are  covered  by 
cartilage,  which,  whilst  very  smooth,  possesses  a  certain  elas- 
ticity. The  lubricating  fluid  is  supplied  by  a  peculiar  secreting 
membrane,  which  we  shall  consider  later. 

The  horse's  foot  presents  the  following  joints  : — (1)  the  fetlock 
joint ;  (2)  the  coronet  joint ;  (3)  the  pedal  joint.  The  ligaments 
are  shown  in  figs.  21  to  23,  to  which  the  under-mentioned 
letters  refer. 

1.  The  Fetlock  Joint. 

In  this  joint  the  lower  end  of  the  metacarpus  forms  the 
upper  articular  surface.  The  upper  end  of  the  suffraginis  bone 
and  the  anterior  surfaces  of  the  sesamoid  bones  are  so  combined 
that  the  articular  surface  of  the  suffrag^inis  forms  the  anterior, 
the  sesamoid  bones  the  posterior,  portion  of  the  lower  articular 
surface.  To  attain  the  necessary  strength,  this  joint  is  provided 
with  numerous  strong  ligaments. 

{a)  All  the  bones  which  contribute  to  the  formation  of  the 
fetlock  joint  are  enclosed  by  a  synovial  membrane  (fig.  10,  e). 
This  surrounds  the  lower  end  of  the  great  metacarpus  and  the 
upper  end  of  the  suffraginis  bone  throughout  their  entire  extent, 
but  in  the  case  of  the  sesamoid  bones  is  only  inserted  around  the 
articular  borders.  Behind,  a  portion  extends  between  the  great 
metacarpus  and  the  superior  sesamoidean  ligament :  its  walls 
are  very  thin.  Anteriorly,  however,  between  the  metacarpus 
and  suffraginis  bones  the  walls  are  thick,  and  are  attached 
at  either  side  to  the  lateral  ligaments.  Another  part  of  this 
capsule  closely  surrounds  the  flexor  tendons. 

(h)  The  great  metacarpus  and  suffraginis  bones  are  con- 
nected by  an  inner  and  an  outer  lateral  ligament.  Each  of  these 
consists  of  a  comparatively  weak,  superficial  layer,  which  arises 
from  the  lateral  surface  of  the  lower  end  of  the  metacarpus 
and  extends  to  the  middle  of  the  suffraginis  bone,  and  of  a 
deeper,   short  but  very  strong,  layer,   whicli  arises   from   the 

c 


34 


LIGAMENTOUS   STRUCTURES   OF   THE   FOOT. 


depression  at  the  lower  end  of  the  metacarpus,  and  becomes 
attached  to  the  rough  spot  on  the  side  of  the  upper  end  of  the 
suffraginis  bone,  and  partly  also  to  the  excentric  surface  of  the 
sesamoid. 

(c)  The  connections  between  the  sesamoid  bones  are  much 

more  complicated 
than  those  of  the 
bones  hitherto  re- 
garded. 

(1)  The  sesamoid 
bones  are  connected 
with  one  another  by 
means  of  an  inter- 
sesamoidean  liga- 
ment (b).  This  con- 
nection is  so  strong 
as  almost  to  convert 
the  two  sesamoids 
into  one  mass,  and 
to  render  movement 
between  them  out  of 
the  question. 

The  inter-sesamoi- 
dean  ligament  con- 
sists  of  very  strong, 
fibrous  tissue  (with  an 
admixture  of  white 
fibro-cartilage),  the 
pjq  21  fibres  of   which  run 

Fig.  21  shows  the  bones  of  the  foot  and  their  ligaments  obliouelv         between 

viewed  from  the  side,  figs.  22  and  23  viewed  from  behind.  i                     • 

The  letters  indicate  same  parts  in  each  figure,    a,  exter-  the  OpDOSino"  SUrfaCCS 

nal  lateral  ligament  of  pastern  joint ;  ft,  intersesamoidean  j                   i*^     i          j^m 

ligament ;   c,  superior  sesamoidean  ligament ;   d,  middle  and     Completely      fill 

limb  of  inferior  sesamoidean  ligament ;  d',  lateral  limb  of  ,                                       ,  . 

do.;  e,  cruciate  ligament ;/,  lateral  sesamoidean  ligament;  the         SpaCe         whlch 

g,  outer  lateral  ligament  of  the  pastern  joint;  h  and  h',  i  j       t_ 

posterior  corono-sutfraginal   ligaments;   i,   outer  lateral  WOUld  OtherwisCCxist 
ligament  of  pedal  joint ;   k,  postero-lateral  ligaments  of 

navicular  bone  ;  I,  fibrous  sheath  of  synovial  membrane  of  between     the     bonCS. 

coffin  joint.  mi  •        .• 

ihis  tissue  IS  pro- 
longed upwards  above  the  sesamoids,  forming  an  oval  mass 
which  posteriorly  is  somewhat  concave  and  markedly  exceeds  in 
size  the  sesamoid  bones  themselves.  The  posterior  surface  is 
very  smooth  and  permits  of  the  tendon  of  the  flexor  pedis  per- 


THE   FETLOCK   JOINT. 


35 


forans  and  of  the  encircling  fibres  which  tlie  flexor  pedis  perfor- 
atus  gives  to  the  perforans  at  this  point,  gliding  freely  over  it. 
(2)  Above,  the  sesamoid  bones  are  attached,  or  perhaps  we 
should  say  slung,  through  the  medium  of  the  superior  sesa- 
moidean  or  suspensory  ligament  (c,  and  fig.  10,  &,  and  fig.  25,  h). 
This  is  a  very  strong  tendinous  cord,  the  substance  of  which 


Fig.  22. 


Fig.  23. 


always  presents  more  or  less  muscular  tissue,  for  which  reason 
it  has  been  termed  the  flexor  suffraginis.  It  is,  in  reality,  a 
modified  interosseous  muscle. 

Its  upper  end  is  attached,  in  the  fore-limb,  behind  the  knee, 
in  the  hind-limb,  behind    the   hock,  and   becomes  continuous 


36  LIGAMENTOUS   STKUCTURES   OF   THE   FOOT. 

with  the  other  ligaments  covering  the  posterior  surfaces  of 
these  joints.  From  this  point  it  runs  downwards  immediately 
in  contact  with  the  posterior  surface  of  the  metacarpus,  lying 
between  the  two  small  metacarpals.  At  the  lower  third  of  the 
metacarpus  it  divides  into  two  portions,  which  become  attached 
to  the  corresponding  surfaces  of  the  sesamoids.  From  this 
point  each  division  gives  off  a  considerable  reinforcing  band, 
which  runs  in  an  oblique  direction  downwards  and  forwards,  to 
become  continuous  with  the  extensor  pedis  tendon  at  the  front 
of  the  suffraginis  bone.  This  is  the  "  ligamentum  extensorum  " 
of  Percivall. 

(3)  The  sesamoid  bones  are  attached  below  by  two  ligaments, 
the  inferior  sesamoid ean  ligament  and  the  cruciate  ligament. 
The  inferior  sesamoidean  ligament  {d  and  d',  and  fig.  10,  l')  is 
a  strong  band,  in  which  three  parts  may  be  distinguished.  The 
middle  portion  (^)' (superficial  inferior  sesamoidean  ligament  of 
MTadyean)  is  the  most  superficial ;  it  arises  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  two  sesamoid  bones  and  runs,  more  or  less  covering  the 
two  lateral  portions,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  few  fibres, 
in  a  downward  direction  to  be  inserted  into  the  strong  posterior 
margin  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  coronet  bone.  Here  it 
becomes  intimately  united  with  the  two  limbs  of  the  flexor 
pedis  perforatus  tendon,  forming  one  mass. 

The  two  lateral  limbs  {d')  (middle  inferior  sesamoidean  liga- 
ment) arise  from  the  lower  part  of  the  sesamoid  bones,  run 
downwards  and  inwards,  converging  at  an  acute  angle.  They 
become  attached  to  the  posterior  surface  of  the  centre  of  the 
suffraginis  bone,  and  extend  downwards  to  near  its  lower  end, 
covering  the  already  described  rough  triangle  on  the  posterior 
surface  of  that  bone. 

The  cruciate  ligament  (e)  (deep  inferior  sesamoidean  ligament), 
formed  of  flat  crossed  fibres,  closely  applied  to  one  another,  is 
covered  by  the  lateral  limbs  of  the  inferior  sesamoidean  liga- 
ment. The  fibres  themselves  arise  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
posterior  surface  of  the  suffraginis  bone,  and,  after  crossing,  end 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  sesamoid  bones. 

(4)  Towards  the  sides  the  sesamoid  bones  are  attached  by 
the  two  lateral  sesamoidean  ligaments  (/).  These  arise  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  corresponding  surface  of  the  sesamoid 
bones,  and  divide  into  two  portions,  the  upper  becoming  attached 


THE   PASTERN   JOINT.  37 

in  the  ligamentous  pit  of  the  lower  end  of  the  metacarpus,  the 
lower  to  the  side  of  the  upper  end  of  the  suffraginis  bone.* 


2.  The  Pastern  Joint, 

Consisting  of  only  two  articular  surfaces,  the  lower  end  of 
the  suffraginis  and  the  upper  end  of  the  coronet  bones,  is  the 
simplest  joint  of  the  foot.  The  suffraginis  bone  possesses  a 
convexity,  the  coronet  bone  a  corresponding  concavity,  which  is 
completed  at  the  back  by  tendinous  and  ligamentous  structures. 
The  ligaments  of  the  coronet  joint  are : — 

(1)  A  capsular  ligament,  or  rather,  a  synovial  membrane 
(fig.  10,/),  attached  to  the  borders  of  the  respective  articular 
surfaces.  Its  outer  sheath  is  anteriorly  and  laterally  fairly 
strons:,  in  front  it  is  attached  to  the  extensor  tendon  of  the 
foot,  and  laterally  to  the  lateral  ligament ;  posteriorly  to  the 
cartilaginous  mass  formed  by  the  tendons  and  ligaments  there 
inserted,  at  which  point  it  is  very  thin  and  lax. 

(2)  An  inner  and  an  outer  lateral  ligament  (g).  These  are 
short,  but  fairly  strong,  bands,  arising  from  the  sides  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  suffraginis  bone,  and  being  attached  to  the  lateral 
surfaces  of  the  upper  part  of  the  coronet  bone.  They  are  con- 
tinued downwards  and  backwards  as  the  postero-lateral  liga- 
ments of  the  coffin  joint,  and  each  eventually  is  inserted  into 
the  end  of  the  navicular  bone  of  its  own  side,  and  into  the 
wing  of  the  os  pedis. 

(3)  The  posterior  corono-suffraginal  ligaments  are  four  in 
number.  The  two  central  Qi)  arise  from  the  sides  of  the  rough 
triangle  at  the  posterior  surface  of  the  suffraginis  bone  about 
its  centre ;  between  them  lies  the  lower  part  of  the  central 
limb  of  the  inferior  sesamoidean  ligament  (superficial  inferior 
sesamoidean  ligament).  The  lateral  (li')  arise  from  the  sides  of 
the  suffraginis  boue,  about  its  lower  third,  and  are  in  contact, 
on  either  side,  with  the  terminal  branches  of  the  flexor  pedis 
perforatus  tendon.     They  are  weaker  than  the  central,  and  are 


*  Prof.  Mettam  considers  it  is  doubtful  if  the  lateral  sesamoidean  ligament 
divides  into  two  portions.  He  prefers  rather  to  look  upon  that  directed  upwards, 
as  here  related,  as  a  portion  of  the  lateral  ligament  of  the  fetlock  joint,  and  the 
lower  portion  inserted  into  the  sesamoid  as  the  true  lateral  sesamoid  ligament. — 
[Jno.  a.  W.  D.] 


38  LIGAMENTOUS   STRUCTURES   OF   THE   FOOT. 

covered  by  strands  of  tissue  that  act  as  a  check  ligament  to  the 
flexor  pedis  perforans,  with  which  they  are  usually  so  inti- 
mately united  that  they  might  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  that 
ligament. 

As  already  indicated,  these  ligaments  at  their  insertion  into 
the  posterior  part  of  the  coronet  bone  combine  intimately  with 
the  central  limb  of  the  inferior  sesamoidean  ligament  and  with 
the  terminal  portions  of  the  flexor  pedis  perforatus,  so  as  to 
form  a  single  mass  and  to  pernait  only  of  artificial  separation. 

3.  The  Pedal  or  Coffin  Joint 

Is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  articular  surfaces  of  three  bones. 
The  convexity  is  formed  by  the  lower  articular  surface  of  the 
coronet  bone,  the  concavity  by  the  upper  surface  of  the  os  pedis 
and  by  the  navicular  bone. 

{a)  All  three  bones  are  united  by  a  synovial  membrane 
(fig.  10,  g),  which,  as  in  other  joints,  surrounds  the  articular 
surfaces  of  the  joint.  The  outer  sheath  is  strong  in  front,  where 
it  is  firmly  united  to  the  extensor  tendon.  Behind,  the  capsule 
is  distended  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  blind  sac  (fig.  10,//'),  which 
extends  upwards  behind  the  coronet  bone.  At  this  point  its 
outer  sheath  is  very  thin,  but  between  the  navicular  and  pedal 
bones  it  is  strengthened  by  fibres  which  run  from  before  back- 
wards, and  w^hich  are  so  well-marked  as  to  present  the  appear- 
ance of  a  special  ligament,  w^hich  has  been  described  as  the 
inferior  navicular  ligament  or  interosseous  ligament. 

(h)  The  coronet  and  pedal  bones  are  connected  by  an  inner 
and  an  outer  lateral  ligament  {i)  (antero-lateral  ligaments, 
MTadyean).  These  ligaments  are  excessively  strong  ;  they  arise 
from  the  ligamentous  furrow  at  the  sides  of  the  coronet  bone, 
run  somewhat  obliquely  backwards  and  downwards  to  end  in 
special  pits  on  the  upper  border  of  the  pedal  bone,  flanking 
on  either  side  the  pyramidal  process.  Posteriorly,  they  are 
bounded  by  the  lateral  cartilages,  in  the  tissues  of  which  they 
are  lost. 

(c)  The  navicular  bone  is  connected  with  the  suffraginis 
and  pedal  bones  and  wdth  the  lateral  cartilages. 

With  the  suffraginis  bone  by  means  of  the  postero-lateral 
ligaments  or  suspensory  ligaments  of   the  navicular  bone  {k, 


THE   PEDAL   JOINT. 


39 


and  fig.  24,  h).  These  arise  in  common  from  the  posterior 
border  of  the  navicular  bone,  which  is  completely  occupied 
by  them,  extend  upwards  on  either  side  in  an  oblique  direc- 
tion over  the  lateral  surfaces 
of  the  coronet  bone,  to  which 
they  are  partly  attached  ;  and 
end  on  the  anterior  part  of  the' 
lower  extremity  of  the  suffra- 
ginis  bone,  becoming  united 
with  the  lateral  ligaments  of 
this  and  of  the  coronet  bones. 
These  ligaments  sustain  the 
navicular  bone  in  position. 
The  navicular  bone  is  further 
connected  with  the  pedal  bone, 
and  especially  with  the  lateral 
cartilages,  by  what  German 
anatomists  term  lateral  liga- 
ments (fig.  24,  C).       These  con-    ^^^    24.-^,  pedal  bone;  B,  lateral  cartilage 

sist  Of  short  but  strong  masses     cutthro;.gh  J;-;-*^^^^^^^^^^ 

of     lisramentOUS     tissue,    which        navicular  bones,  for  articulation  with  coronet 
o  '  bone ;  6,  postero-lateral  ligaments  of  navi- 

run  obliquely  from  the  ends  of     -Mr  bone  -t  through ;  ^^^-^^^o^ 

the      navicular      bone      to      the       l^^^^ ;  /;  t^^  lateral  ligament  of  navicular 

bone  of  the  German  anatomists. 

lateral  cartilage  of  either  side, 

to  which  and  to  the  wings  of  the  pedal  bone  they  become 
attached.  They  are  really  but  extensions  of  the  postero-lateral 
ligaments,  and  the  most  important  connecting  ligament  between 
the  pedal  and  navicular  bones  is  undoubtedly  the  interosseous. 
The  pedal  joint  permits  of  slight  lateral  movements. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  LOCOMOTOR  APPARATUS  OF  THE  FOOT. 


The    extremity   of    the    horse's    limb    possesses    no    muscular 

tissues,  and  the  struc- 
tures which  move  the 
bones  of  the  foot  act 
through  the  medium 
of  long,  powerful  ten- 
dons. In  the  front 
limb  the  muscles 
themselves  are  situ- 
ated above  the  knee 
and  around  the  fore- 
arm, in  the  hind  above 
the  hock  and  around 
the  leg  or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called, 
second  thigh.  In 
construction  and  in 
the  arrangement  of 
their  tendons,  which, 
for  our  purpose,  alone 
demand  considera- 
tion, there  is  no 
essential  difference 
between  the  fore  and 
hind  limbs.  Tlie 
movements  of  the 
bones  of  the  foot  occur  in  two  directions.  Movement  for- 
wards we  term  extension,  movement  backwards,  flexion.  The 
extensor  tendons  lie  in  front  of,  the  flexor  behind,  the  bones 
of  the  limb. 

40 


Fig.  25. — Antero-exterual  view  of  right  fore-foot,  a,  exten- 
sor pedis  tendon  ;  6,  superior  sesamoidean  or  suspensory 
ligament;  b',  prolongation  of  sup. -sesamoidean  lig.  (lig. 
extensorum)  ;  c,  extensor  suffraginis  tendon. 


the  extensor  pedis  tendon.  41 

1.  The  Extensor  Pedis  Tendon. 
(Fig.  25,  a.) 

The  suffraginis,  coronet,  and  pedal  bones  have  one  common 
extensor  tendon.  In  the  fore-limb  the  suffraginis  bone  also 
receives  a  special  tendon,  the  extensor  suffraginis,  which  lies 
alongside  the  extensor  pedis  tendon  on  the  outer  face  of  the 
limb,  and  is  inserted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  suffraginis. 

The  extensor  pedis  tendon  runs  downwards  over  the  front  of 
the  great  metacarpal  bone  and  of  the  fetlock  joint  towards  the 
lower  end  of  the  os  suffraginis,  w^here  it  receives  on  either  side 
an  important  reinforcement  from  the  superior  sesamoidean  liga- 
ment (fig.  25,  h'),  which  increases  its  width  to  l|-  or  2  inches. 
It  then  passes  over  the  pastern  joint,  the  coronet  bone  and 
coffin  joint,  and  is  inserted  into  the  pyramidal  process  of  the 
OS  pedis.  It  is  attached  to  all  the  bones  of  the  foot,  with  the 
exception  of  the  navicular,  and  to  the  anterior  surfaces  of  their 
capsular  ligaments,  while  it  is  held  in  position  both  by  the  rein- 
forcing bands  received  from  the  superior  sesamoidean  ligament 
and  by  the  band-like  ligaments  which  run  to  it  from  the 
lower  end  of  the  suffraginis  bone. 

The  masses  of  muscle  of  which  the  extensor  pedis  tendon  is 
a  continuation  are  termed  the  extensor  pedis  muscle. 

2.  The  Flexor  Pedis  Perforatus  Tendon 
(Figs.  26,  &,  and  27,  a) 

Courses  down  the  posterior  surface  of  the  great  metacarpus, 
and  covers  the  other  flexor  tendon.  At  the  point  where  the 
two  sesamoid  bones  form  a  gliding  surface  (fig.  26,/),  the  tendon 
becomes  broader  and  flatter,  somewhat  concave  on  its  anterior 
surface,  and  some  of  its  fibres  form  a  ring  (fig.  26,  h'),  by  which 
it  is  attached  to  the  flexor  pedis  perforans  (a'^^),  which  lies 
immediately  in  front  of  it.  It  then  passes  behind  the  suffra- 
ginis bone,  still  covering  the  perforans  tendon,  and  somewhat 
below  the  middle  of  this  bone  divides  into  two  limbs  (figs.  26,  6", 
and  27,  b),  permitting  the  passage  of  the  perforans  tendon,  and 
becomes  attached  on  either  side  to  the  lateral  surface  of  the 
coronet  bone.     At  this  point  it  is  difficult  to  divide  the  tendon 


42 


LOCOMOTOR  APPARATUS  OF  THE  FOOT. 


from  the  ligaments,  with  which  it  forms  a  most  intimate  con- 
nection. A  smaller  portion  extends 
to  the  lateral  surface  of  the  suffra- 
ginis  bone  just  above  its  lower  end. 
The  tendon,  therefore,  acts  not  only 
on  the  coronet,  but  also  on  the  suffra- 
ginis  bone. 


3.  The  Flexor  Pedis  Perforans 

Tendon 

(Figs.  26,  a,  27,  c) 

Is  described  by  German  anatomists 
as  arising  in  the  fore -limb  from  five, 
and  in  the  hind- limb  from  three 
masses  of  muscle.  During  its  course 
behind  the  metacarpus,  it  is  rounded 
and  lies  between  the  perforatus  tendon 
and  superior  sesamoidean  ligament. 
It  passes  through  the  ring  formed  by 
the  perforatus  tendon  (fig.  26,  h'), 
glides  over  the  articular  surface  of 
the  sesamoid  bones,  here  losing  its 
rounded  shape,  and  becoming  broad 
and  double-edged,  next  makes  its  way 
through  the  opening  formed  by  the 
division  of  the  perforatus  tendon  (fig. 
27),  here  being  in  contact  with  the 
smooth  surface  formed  by  the  fibrous 
mass  clothing  the  posterior  surface 
of  the  coronet  bone  (fig.  26,  e),  and 
beino;  marked  on  its  anterior  surface 
by  a  crescent-shaped  prominence 
(fig.  26,  a''),  to  which  the  synovial 
sheath  is  attached  ;  it  then  proceeds 
as  a  broad  fan-shaped  tendon  (fig. 
26,  a^)  over  the  navicular  bone  (c),  as 
over  a  pulley,  completely  covering 
the  bone.  At  this  point  it  exhibits 
a  deep  furrow,  corresponding  to  the 


Fig.  26.  —  Posterior  view  of  right 
fore-foot,  rt,  lower  end  of  flexor 
pedis  perforans  tendon  cut  through 
and  drawn  downwards ;  a',  ex- 
panded portion  which  becomes 
attached  to  pedal  bone ;  a",  depres- 
sion for  reception  of  the  rounded 
prominence  of  tlie  navicular  bone  ; 
a'",  isolated  section  of  flexor  pedis 
perforans  tendon  surrounded  by 
tendinous  ring  b' ;  h,  flexor  pedis 
perforatus  tendon  ;  b' ,  its  fibrous 
ring ;  h",  its  terminal  limbs,  be- 
tween which  passes  the  flexor  p. 
perforans  tendon ;  c,  navicular 
bone  ;  d,  its  postero-lateral  liga- 
ments ;  e,  posterior  face  of  coronet 
bone,  over  which  glides  the  per- 
forans tendon  ;  /,  gliding  surface 
formed  by  intersesamoidean  liga- 
ment ;  g,  superior  sesamoidean  or 
suspensory  ligament;  g' ,  its  in- 
sertions into  the  sesamoid  bones. 


THE   FLEXOR   PEDIS    PERFORAXS   TENDON. 


43 


prominence  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  navicular  bone.  Finally, 
it  is  inserted  into  the  entire  surface  bounded  by  the  half-moon- 
shaped  space  already  described  on  the 
lower  surface  of  the  pedal  bone.  The 
lower  part  of  its  posterior  surface  rests 
in  a  special  space  (fig.  27,  c),  on  the 
plantar  cushion. 

The  flexor  tendons,  like  the  extensors, 
are  held  in  place  from  behind  by  special 
check  ligaments,  which  fasten  them  to 
the  bones  of  the  foot.     These  consist — 

(1)  Of  a  broad,  strong,  annular  liga- 
ment, which  arises  from  the  sides  of 
the  sesamoid  bones  and  surrounds  the 
perforatus  (fig.  27,  d,  and  fig.  31,/). 

(2)  Of  a  mass  of  fibrous  tissue  at- 
tached to  the  skin,  which  embraces  the 
perforatus  tendon  below  the  fetlock 
joint  like  a  girdle  (fig.  27,  d^).  It  is 
attached  by  its  two  upper  and  stronger 
limbs  (fig.  27,  d^^)  to  either  side  of  the 
upper  end  of  the  os  suffraginis  behind 
the  lateral  ligament ;  its  two  lower, 
weaker  limbs  are  inserted  on  the  sides 
of  the  lower  third  of  the  suffraginis  bone. 
Above,  this  fibrous  mass  unites  with  the 
annular  ligament,  and  its  central  portion 
is,  in  general,  very  intimately  connected 
with  the  flexor  pedis  perforatus  tendon. 

(3)  Of  a  more  elastic  ligamentous 
apparatus  embedded  in  the  skin  (fig. 
27,  e),  which  covers  the  lower  end  of  the 
perforans  tendon,  and  is  closely  con- 
nected with  it.  Two  strong,  elongated, 
and  somewhat  elastic  bands  (fig.  27,  e') 
arise  from  the  pedal  bone  at  the  point 
of  insertion  of  the  perforans  tendon, 
and  pass  in  an  upward  direction,  cover- 
ing the  points  of  insertion  of  the  per- 
foratus tendon,  and  becoming  inserted  into  the  lateral  aspects 


¥10.  27. —  Right  fore-foot  seen 
from  behiiul  and  slightly  from 
one  side,  a,  flexor  pedis  per- 
foratus tendon  ;  b,  two  limbs 
formed  by  its  bifurcation ;  c, 
flexor  pedis  perforans  tendon  ; 
d,  fibrous  reinforcing  band  of 
great  sesamoid  sheath  ;  d', 
fibrous  supporting  sheath  in- 
serted into  suffraginis  bone  by 
four  heads ;  d",  upper  insei-- 
tions  (the  lower  not  visible  in 
figure);  e,  fibro-elastic  plate 
covering  the  lower  surface  of 
flexor  p.  perforans  and  inserted 
into  suffraginis  bone  at  e';  f, 
suspensory  ligament. 


44  LOCOMOTOR  APPARATUS  OF  THE  FOOT. 

of  the  suffraginis  bone  at  about  its  centre.  They  sustain  the 
lower  part  of  the  perforans  tendon  like  a  sling.  As  the  divisions 
of  the  perforatus  tendon  in  passing  downwards,  and  of  this 
elastic  ligament  in  passing  upwards,  diverge  from  one  another, 
they  enclose  an  oval  or  diamond-shaped  space,  which  is  closed 
from  without  by  a  thin  membrane  connected  with  the  synovial 
sheath  of  the  perforans  tendon. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE  ELASTIC  TISSUES  OF  THE  FOOT. 

To  those  portions  of  the  horse's  foot  just  described  must  be 
added  other  structures,  which  prolong  and  complete  the  former  : 
the  two  lateral  cartilages  and  the  plantar  cushion.  These  are 
pecuUar  to  the  horse,  and  do  not  occur  in  the  same  form  in 
the  foot  of  any  other  animal.  They,  therefore,  differentiate  the 
equine  foot  from  all  others,  and,  on  account  of  their  structure, 
form,  and  functions,  deserve  our  closest  attention.  The  fact  of 
physical  peculiarities  rendering  them  of  such  great  importance, 
leads  us  to  very  shortly  describe  the  two  commonest  forms : 
cartilage  and  elastic  tissue. 

Cartilages  are,  in  simple  language,  close-grained,  firm  tissues, 
which,  when  fresh,  present  a  whitish,  when  dried,  a  browii 
colour.  They  are  moderately  firm  in  texture,  exceedingly 
tough,  insensitive,  and  almost  non-vascular.  In  addition  to 
toughness  they  show  a  high  degree  of  flexibility  and  elasticity, 
especially  when  in  moderately-thin  plates  or  when  mixed  with 
other  fibrous  or  tendinous  tissue,  as  in  "  fibro-cartilage."  In 
the  animal  body,  cartilage  not  only  forms  a  component  of  joints, 
in  which  we  have  already  found  it  occurring  as  articular 
cartilage,  but  enters  into  the  composition  of  many  parts,  which, 
while  possessing  a  distinct  form,  are  also  distinctly  flexible. 

Elastic  tissue  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the  animal 
organism,  and  is  found  associated  with  connective  or  cellular 
tissue,  of  which  it  is  a  variety.  The  parts  in  which  elastic 
tissue  predominates  are  distinguished  by  a  yellow  colour. 
Microscopical  examination  shows  this  tissue  to  consist  of  fine 
fibres  uniting  with  one  another  and  forming  a  kind  of  net. 
The  smallest  accumulations  of  such  fibres  are  associated  to  form 
bundles,  smaller  and  larger  cords,  bands,  or  entire  tissues.  The 
ends  of  the  fine  threads,  when  ruptured,  curl  up ;  and  the  larger, 

45 


46 


THE   ELASTIC   TISSUES   OF   THE   FOOT. 


when  pulled  lengthwise,  return  to  their  original  position  with  a 
jerk,  reminding  one  closely  of  india-rubber.  This  tissue,  like 
cartilage,  is  insensitive,  and  almost  non- vascular. 


1.  The  Latekal  Cartilages 

Are    attached  to    the  wings  of    the    pedal    bone,  which  they 

prolong  in  a  backward  and 
upward  direction.  Each  car- 
tilage consists  of  an  approxi- 
mately lozenge-shaped  plate, 
extending  upwards  above  the 
middle  of  the  coronet  bone. 
In  front,  it  is  in  contact  with 
the  extensor  tendon ;  behind, 
it  projects  beyond  the  pedal 
bone.  The  free  ends  of  the 
cartilages  tend  to  approach 
each  other,  and  thus  to  sur- 
round the  plantar  cushion  and 
flexor  perforans  tendon. 

Each  cartilage  has  two  sur- 
faces, four   borders,   and  four 


Fig.  28.—^,  pedal  bone;  B,  lateral  cartilage 
cut  through  horizon ti 
coffin  joint ;  c,  poster 


cut  through  horizontally  at  the  height  of  the    aUglcS.       ThC  OUtOr  SUrfaCC  (ficr. 
jro-lateral  ligaments.  ^  ^    '^ 


29,  C)  is  convex,  and  covered 
by  numerous  blood-vessels,  mostly  veins.     Its  anterior  and  upper 

parts  are  fairly  smooth, 
but  the  posterior  and 
under  portion  show 
numerous  apertures  of 
varying  size,  permitting 
the  passage  of  blood- 
vessels. The  anterior 
portion  of  the  inner 
surface  (fig.  30,  JB) 
covers  the   side  of  the 

FIG.  29.-Right  fore-foot     A,   coronet  bone;  5   pedal  corOUCt  boUC.      It  is  COU- 
bone  ;    C,   outer   lateral    cartilage  ;    a,   outer  lateral 

ligament    of    pedal    joint;    b,    ligament    connecting  caVC,  and  frOm  itS  UPPCr 
lateral  cartilage  to  coronet  bone ;  c,  ligament  connect-  '  ^^ 

ing  lateral  cartilage  to  pedal  bone.  border     arisC    numCrOUS 

Strong,  cord-like  tendons,  which  run  in  various  directions.      Be- 


THE    LATERAL   CARTILAGES. 


47 


lateral  cartilage  ;  a,  insertions  of  the  various  ligaments 
attaclied  to  lateral  cartilage  ;  b,  furrow  leading  to  plantar 
foramen  ;  c,  point  of  insertion  of  ligament  connecting  the 
coronet  bone  and  lateral  cartilage ;  d,  point  of  insertion 
of  lateral  ligament  of  navicular  bone  (postero-lateral 
ligament). 


tween  these  are  channels  for  a  rich  venous  network.     About 
the  centre  of  the  inner  surface,  or  rather  nearer  its  anterior 
margin,  can  usually  be  found  a  well-marked  furrow  (l)  running 
from     above     down- 
wards  and   forwards 
towards  the   plantar 
groove.      In  this  lies    -^ 
the  large  vessel  which 
supplies     the    pedal 
bone.      Close  to  the 
lower    and     anterior 
angle     are    attached 
the     postero  -  lateral 
licfaments      of       the 

o 

pnffnn  ^n^^^i ( rl^      Frnm     FiG.   30.— Postero-lateral  view    of    pedal    bone    and    inner 
LOmnjumn^(t;.     Jium        lateral  cartilage.     ^,  pedal    bone  ;£,  inner  surface  of 

here  runs  a  strong, 
fibrous  cord,  the  liga- 
ment connecting  the 
lateral  cartilage  and 
bulbs  of  the  frog  to  the  lateral  surface  of  the  pastern  bone  (figs. 
31,  c,  and  33,  cl).  The  upper  border  is  thin,  and  usually  inclined 
inwards,  but  this  does  not  obtain  in  every  foot ;  in  some  it 
is  upright,  in  others  more  or  less  turned  outwards.  The  lower 
border  is  the  thickest  portion  of  the  cartilage.  In  front  it  is 
united  with  the  wing  of  the  os  pedis,  in  part  directly,  in  part 
by  the  ligaments  attached  in  common  to  it  and  to  the  pedal 
or  navicular  bones  (fig.  29,  c).  The  notch  in  the  wing  of  the 
pedal  bone  is  closed  by  a  mass  of  cartilage,  save  for  a  small 
foramen,  which  permits  of  vessels  passing  to  the  sensitive  struc- 
tures. The  site  of  this  foramen  is  where  ossification  of  the 
lateral  cartilage  usually  begins.  The  posterior  part  of  the  lower 
border  inclines  inwards  (fig.  28),  but  from  this  point,  in  an  up- 
ward  direction,  the  usual  trend  is  outwards.  The  tissue  is  here 
in  such  close  union  with  the  plantar  cushion,  partly  through 
cartilaginous,  partly  through  fibrous  connections,  that  the  two 
form  a  common  mass,  in  which  no  distinct  boundary  can  be 
detected  (fig.  35).  The  anterior  border  runs  obliquely  from 
above  downwards  and  backwards,  and  is  closely  connected  with 
the  lateral  ligaments  of  the  pedal  joint  (fig.  29,  a),  with  which 
it  to  some  extent  unites.      The  posterior  border  runs  in  the 


48  THE   ELASTIC   TISSUES   OF   THE   FOOT. 

same  direction  as  the  anterior,  is  sharp,  and  exhibits  a  number 
of  depressions,  through  which  vessels  pass.  The  antero-superior 
angle  is  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  anterior  and  upper  borders. 
It  is  attached  to  the  lateral  surfaces  of  the  coronet  bone  by 
strong  ligaments  (figs.  29,  h,  and  30,  c).  The  antero-inferior 
angle  is  connected  with  the  wing  of  the  os  pedis.  The  postero- 
superior  angle,  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  upper  and  posterior 
borders,  is  somewhat  rounded  off.  The  postero-inferior  angle 
is  connected  with  the  plantar  cushion. 

A  short  note  on  ossification  of  the  lateral  cartilage  may 
perhaps  be  permissible.  Lungvvitz's  experiments  showed  that 
of  1251  animals  examined,  11*5  per  cent,  had  well-marked 
ossification.  Lungwitz  states  that  side-bone  is  commonest  in 
heavy,  coarse-bred  horses  (our  common  experience) ;  the  fore- 
feet are  most  frequently  affected — the  left  foot  more  commonly 
than  the  right,  and -the  outer  cartilage  oftener  than  the  inner. 
Ossification  may  occur  early  in  life,  especially  at  the  time 
when  animals  are  first  put  to  work.  Well-bred  animals 
seldom  suffer. 

2.  The  Plantar  Cushion. 

The  fibro-fatty  frog  or  plantar  cushion  (figs.  31,  a,  and  10,  i), 
althouoli  sometimes  described  as  consistinf^  of  two  different 
parts,  the  sensitive  bulbs  and  sensitive  frog,  must  practically 
be  regarded  as  one  and  indivisible.  It  is  diflicult  to  find  an 
object  which  precisely  simulates  it  in  form  ;  but  it  may  be 
compared  to  a  wedge  whose  sides  all  converge  to  one  point,  or 
to  a  four -sided  pyramid,  one  surface  of  wdiich  is  slightly  convex, 
the  opposite  concave. 

The  convex,  thicker  end  of  the  plantar  cushion,  is  turned 
towards  the  rear,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  posterior  part  of 
the  lateral  cartilage.  Thence  it  converges  to  a  point  correspond- 
ing in  position  to  the  border  between  the  anterior  and  middle 
thirds  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  pedal  bone.  Consequently, 
it  covers  the  centre  of  the  two  posterior  thirds  of  the  sensitive 
foot. 

The  postero-superior  part  (figs.  31,  a,  32,  a,  33,  a,  and  34,  V)  is 
convex,  rounded,  and  rises  on  either  side  above  the  neighbouiing 
portions.     Its  centre  is  marked  by  a  slight  depression,  dividing 


THE  PLANTAK  CUSHION  AND  BULBS. 


49 


it  into  two  distinct  halves,  which,  as  they  serve  as  bases  to  the 
so-called  bulbs  of  the  foot,  and  for  the  most  part  are  only 
covered  by  skin,  have  received  the  name  of  the  sensitive  bulbs. 

The  cellular  bulbs  consist  principally  of  yellow,  elastic  or 
fibrous  tissue,  combined  to  form  elastic  membranes,  elastic  cords 
of  varying  thickness,  bundles, 
or  spherical  masses.  The  bulbs 
contain  little  white  fibrous  tissue, 
and  are,  therefore,  the  softest 
part  of  the  entire  plantar 
cushion.  From  them,  on  either 
side,  runs  a  strong  elastic  cord 
in  a  forward  and  upward  di- 
rection towards  the  lower  end 
of  the  suffraoinis  bone,  accom- 
panying  a  similar  elastic  cord, 
which  arises  more  from  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  plantar  cushion 
and  inner  surface  of  the  lateral 
cartilage.  As  this  elastic  cord 
serves  to  suspend  the  bulbs 
from  the  fetlock,  it  has  been 
termed  the  suspensory  ligament 
of  the  bulbs  (figs.  31,  5,  and 
33,  c). 

Similar,  but  smaller  liga- 
ments arise  from  the  bulbs,  and 
become  attached  to  the  posterior 
border  of  the  lateral  cartilage 
(fig.  31,  b^).  At  the  same  point 
is  inserted  a  tendon,  originating 
in  the  skin  close  to  the  horny 
skin  under  the  fetlock  (fig.  31,  d). 

Fig.  31. — Infero-posterior  view  of  right  fore-foot,  showinij  the  position  of  the  plantar  cushion. 
The  outer  lateral  cartilage  and  the  tissues  covering  the  lower  surface  uf  the  pedal  bone 
(sensitive  frog  and  sensitive  sole)  have  been  removed,  a,  plantar  cushion ;  a',  bulbar 
portion  of  plantar  cushion;  a",  cleft  of  the  frog  in  which  rests  the  "frog  stay"; 
b,  origin  of  the  so-called  "suspensory  ligament  of  the  bulbs";  b',  small  elastic  band 
passing  towards  the  lateral  cartilage  ;  c,  elastic  band  arising  from  lateral  cartilage  and 
becoming  inserted  into  pastern  bone  ;  it  unites  with  b ;  d,  small  tendon  whicli  arises 
from  the  skin  and  becomes  attached,  in  common  with  b  and  c,  to  tht-  pastern  bone  ; 
«,  fibro-elastic  supporting  sheath  of  flexor  p.  perforans  ;  /,  flbro-elastic  supporting  sheath 
of  flexor  ped.  perforatus  ;  g,  tlexor  p.  perforatus  tendon  ;  h,  flexor  p.  perforans  tendon  ; 
i,  suspensory  ligament ;  k,  lower  surface  of  pedal  bone,  to  which  the  flexor  p.  perforans 
tendon  is  attached. 


50 


THE    ELASTIC    TISSUES   OF   THE   FOOT, 


This,  however,  is  not  elastic,  but  of  a  fibrous  nature.     The  sides 
of  the  expanded  portion  of  the  Inilbs  cover  the  lower  parts  of 


Fig.  32. —Plantar  cushion,  seen 
from  below,  a,  base  ;  b,  point ; 
<;,  groove  for  receiving  frog- 
stay. 


Fig.  Sii. — Plantar  cushion  seen  from 
above,  a,  base  ;  b,  point ;  c,  origin 
of  the  "suspensory  ligament  of 
bulbs";  d,  spot  where  the  elastic 
ligament  running  to  the  lateral 
cartilage  becomes  attached. 


the  plantar  cushion,  and  are,  as  already  stated,  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  posterior  part  of  the  lateral  cartilage  that 

no  sharp  boundary  can  be  traced  be- 
tween the  two,  the  cartilaginous  material 
penetrating  the  elastic,  and  the  elastic 
the  cartilaginous  (fig.  35).      Anteriorly, 
FIG.  34.-verticai  mesial  se^ion  thc  bulbs  arc  coutinucd  obliqucly  down- 
^^,^:S^ir:^^:^l  wards  and  forwards  over  the  superior 
for  frog-stay.  surface  of  the  plantar  cushion  (figs.  33 

and  34).      From  this  surface  a  number  of  broad  elastic  bands 

run  to  the  elastic  reinforcinf' 
band  of  the  perforans  ten- 
don, to  which  part  they 
become  attached  ;  other  por- 
tions may  be  traced  in  an 
upward     direction.  The 

under  surface  of  the  Ijulbs 

Fig.  35.— Vertical  section  of  foot  from  side  to  side,  and     the     Ulldcr      and      both 

at  a  point  corresponding  to  the  centre  of  the  ,  i  i? 

frog's  greatest  length.    «,  posterior  part  of  plan-  lateral  SUrtaCCS  of    the  plan- 
tar cushion  ;  b,  frog-stay  ;  cc,  lateral  cartilages.  ,  . 

Xote  the  prolongations  into  the  substance  of  the  tar    CUShlOU    are    Clothca    by 
plantar  cushion,    d,  wall ;  e,  lateral  aspect  of  i  i  c 

frog;  /,  junction  of  frog  and  bar;  g,  skin;  h,  a    VaSCUlar    membrane,  irom 
coronary  band  ;  *,  modified  corium  covered  with         i  •    i  i  i 

blood-vessels ;    k,   foramina  in  lateral  cartilage  WlllCQ      the     homy      irOg      IS 
for  passage  of  blood-vessels.  ,     i        c  i  • 

secreted  ;  tor  this  reason  all 
the  central  part  of  the  plantar  cushion  has  been  termed  the 


«' 


BULBS   OF   THE   FOOT.  51 

secreting  or  sensitive  frog.  The  sensitive  frog  is  much  firmer 
than  the  sensitive  bulbs ;  the  elastic  tissue  being  slight,  the 
tendinous  or  fibrous  abundant  in  quantity. 

The  inferior  surface  of  the  base  of  the  l)ulbs  and  the  postero- 
inferior  surface  of  the  sensitive  frog  are  divided  by  a  cleft  of 
varying  depth  into  two  similar  parts  (tigs.  32,  c,  and  34,  c).  Above, 
this  conformation  is  continued  in  the  bulbs  (fig.  32,  a).  Anteriorly, 
the  two  parts  unite  to  form  a  level,  pointed  surface.  The  two 
lateral  surfaces  are  fiat,  and  marginate  the  limbs  on  either  side. 
They  run  towards  the  middle  line  of  the  foot,  and  meet  at  the 
point  of  the  plantar  cushion  (figs.  32  and  33,  b). 

The  cushion  itself  is  fixed  in  position  partly  through  the 
medium  of  the  elastic  cords  and  tissues  enumerated,  partly 
through  its  intimate  connection  with  the  lateral  cartilages,  but 
chiefiy  by  the  fibrous  material  which  most  intimately  unites 
the  sensitive  frog  with  the  lower  surface  of  the  pedal  bone. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  BLOOD-VESSELS  AND  NERVES  OF  THE  FOOT. 

Between  the  bones,  ligaments,  tendons,  and  elastic  tissues  on 
the  one  side,  and  the  protective  structures  of  the  foot  on  the 
other,  lie  a  number  of  organs,  which,  though  not  perhaps  of  the 
same  importance  in  a  mechanical  sense  as  those  already 
reviewed,  nevertheless  exercise  a  paramount  influence  in  the 
play  of  such  phenomena  as  growth,  nourishment  and  sensation. 
These  organs  are  the  blood-vessels  and  nerves. 

A.   BLOOD-VESSELS. 

The  blood-vessels  are  a  system  of  membranous  tubes  which 
convey  the  blood  from  the  centre  of  circulation  to  all  parts  of 
the  body,  and  return  it  thence  to  the  heart.  As  the  blood,  on 
which  the  growth  and  nourishment  of  the  entire  animal  body 
depends,  is  continually  moving,  it  is  clear  that  the  same  tubes 
which  conduct  it  from  the  heart  cannot  return  it  there.  For 
this  reason  two  varieties  of  blood-vessels  are  distinguished — 
those  coming  from  the  heart,  termed  the  arteries,  and  those 
going  to  it,  the  veins. 

With  few  exceptions,  the  arteries  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  veins  in  the  dead  as  well  as  in  the  living  subject.  They 
have  thicker  walls,  are  of  less  calibre,  and  fewer  in  number 
than  the  veins.  In  the  dead  body  they  seldom  contain  blood, 
while  the  veins  are  more  or  less  filled.  Before  Harvey's  dis- 
covery they  were  supposed  to  carry  air ;  hence  their  name.  If, 
in  a  living  animal,  a  large  artery  be  pressed  on  with  the  linger, 
a  regularly-repeated  light  beat  (the  pulse)  can  be  felt.  If 
such  a  vessel  be  opened,  bright  red  blood  issues  in  a  jerking 
stream.  The  veins  exhibit  no  pulsation ;  their  blood  is  dark  red, 
and  escapes  from  the  severed  vessel  in  a  steady  flow. 

52 


BLOOD-VESSELS.  53 

In  addition  to  the  blood-vessels  care  other  tubes,  which  con- 
tain a  yellow  or  yellowish-red  fiiiid.  These  have  very  thin 
walls,  are  small,  and  usually  accompany  veins,  into  which  they 
finally  pour  their  contents.  The  fluid  is  termed  lymph,  and 
the  vessels  themselves  lymph-vessels.  Such  vessels  can  be 
found  in  the  foot,  but  are  so  attenuated  as  scarcely  to  be 
visible.  A  lengthened  description  would  be  inappropriate  here. 
A  few  remarks  on  the  blood-vessels  must  suffice. 

At  their  origin  from  the  heart  the  arteries  are  large  and 
thick-walled,  but,  as  they  recede  from  this  point,  they  continu- 
ously divide,  and  their  walls  become  thinner.  Large  stems 
branch  off  into  smaller ;  from  these  twigs  originate  in  all  direc- 
tions until,  finally,  all  trace  of  them  appears  to  be  lost  in  the 
surrounding  tissues.  The  arrangement  can  best  be  compared 
to  a  tree,  the  trunk  of  which  divides  into  main  stems,  the  stems 
into  branches,  and  the  branches  into  innumerable  twigs.  The 
splitting  up  of  the  vessels  which  provide  blood  for  the  organs 
of  the  body  ultimately  produces  a  net-work,  which  can  no  longer 
be  distinguished  wdth  the  naked  eye.  The  minute  vessels  of 
this  net-work  are  termed  capillaries.  The  capillaries,  after  a 
short  course,  re-unite  in  the  same  fashion  as  they  had  arisen 
from  the  arteries, — that  is,  by  their  union  they  gradually  form 
larger  and  larger  vessels,  termed  veins,  which  at  last  empty  into 
the  heart.  The  veins,  more  especially  those  of  the  limbs,  have 
valves  which  support  the  column  of  blood  ascending  against  the 
action  of  gravity.  The  course  of  the  veins  is  precisely  com- 
parable to  that  of  tfegi  arteries,  though  in  them  the  blood  flows 
in  an  opposite  direction. 

The  arteries  and  veins  being  the  conductors  of  blood  to 
and  from  the  various  organs  are  of  great  importance,  but  the 
capillaries  are  equally  indispensable  to  nutrition  and  secretion. 
Passing  through  their  thin  walls  the  fluid  portions  of  the  bright 
red  arterial  blood  bathe  the  tissues  of  the  different  organs,  bring- 
ing  to  each  the  material  necessary  for  its  existence  and  function. 

All  parts  of  the  foot  are  provided  with  blood-vessels  and 
contain  more  or  less  blood,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
horny  tissues.  The  parts,  however,  concerned  in  producing 
horn,  receive  a  large  supply,  and  are  the  most  vascular  parts 
of  the  entire   foot. 


54 


THE   BLOOD-VESSELS   AND  NERVES   OF   THE   FOOT. 


1.  The  Aijtekies. 

Before  the  blood  from  the  heart  can  reach  the  foot  it  must 
traverse  a  large  number  of  arteries,  v^hich  are  variously  named. 
At  the  metacarpus  the  principal  vessel  is  termed  the  meta- 
carpal artery,  a  name  which  it  retains  down  to  the  region  of  the 
fetlock  joint.  An  inch  or  two  above  the  fetlock  joint  and  in 
front  of  the  flexor  tendons  this  vessel  divides  into  two  branches 
of  similar  size,  which  then   pass  downwards  on   either  side  of 


^ar/>  /' 


Fig.  36.— Lateral  view  of  fore-foot,  with  prepared  vessels  and  nerves,  a,  digital  artery  ; 
&,  perpendicular  artery;  e  ,  preplantar  ai'tery  ;  /',  twigs  from  the  plantar  arterj- 
which  escape  through  the  foramina,  just  above  the  lower  margin  of  the  os  pedis, 
and  by  their  anastomosis  form  f,  the  circumflex  artery  of  the  toe ;  A,  digital 
vein ;  B,  coronary  venous  plexus ;  C,  laminal  plexus ;  G,  circumflex  vein  ;  1, 
digital  nerve;  2,  anterior  tei'minal  branches  of  digital  nerve  :  3.  posterior  ter- 
minal branches  of  digital  nerve  ;  4,  cutaneous  branches. 

the  limb  as  far  as  the  pedal  bone,  being  known  as  the  digital 
arteries.  At  the  pedal  bone  each  digital  divides  to  form  the 
preplantar  (fig.    36,  e!)  and  plantar  artery  (fig.   38,  /). 

Examining  the  vessels  more  closely,  one  notices,  (l)  that 
each  digital  artery  (a)  is  a  fairly-large  vessel,  lying  at  the  sidci 
of  the  flexor  tendons,  to  which,  or  to  the  check  ligament  of 


ARTEPJES   OF   THE   FOOT.  55 

which,  it  is  fastened  by  connective  tissue.  In  front  i.s  placed 
the  vein  of  the  same  name  ;  behind  it  the  digital  nerve.  About 
the  middle  of  the  os  suffracjinis  it  mves  off: — 


(a)  The  sufFraginal  artery.  This  is  a  very  short  vessel, 
which  runs  at  right  angles  to  the  digital  artery,  and  almost 
immediately  divides  into  two  twigs. 

(aa)  The  perpendicular  artery  (the  German  term  means 
anterior  suffraginal  artery)  (tig.  36,  h)  runs  forward,  and  divides 
into  a  short  and  a  long  twig :  the  former  running  upwards, 
the  latter  downwards.  Both  anastomose  freelv  with  the  similar 
artery  of  the  opposite  side.  They  are  distributed  to  the  ex- 
tensor tendon,  the  skin  and  the  fetlock  joint.  The  lower  twig 
assists  in  supplying  blood  to  the  perioplic  and  coronary  bands. 

(hh)  The  posterior  suffraginal  artery.  This  is  one  of  Bouley's 
rameaux  dchelonn^s  (fig.  38,  5),  passes  backward  and  supplies 
the  flexor  tendons  and  their  synovial  sheaths,  the  inferior 
sesamoidean  ligament,  the  suffraginis  bone,  etc.,  and  anastomoses 
with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side. 

ih)  The  artery  of  the  plantar  cushion  (figs.  37  and  38,  c)  arises 
at  about  the  lower  end  of  the  os  suffraginis,  runs  backwards 
and  downwards  below  the  centre  line  of  the  foot,  and  oives  off 
numerous  branches  in  the  plantar  cushion,  and  especially  in  the 
sensitive  frog.     In  addition,  it  sends  twigs  to  the  sensitive  bars. 

(c)  About  the  middle  of  the  coronet  bone  there  arise  from 
the  digital  artery,  sometimes  together,  sometimes  separately — 

{aa)  The  anterior  coronary  artery,  or  anterior  artery  of  the 
coronary  band  (fig.  36,  d).  This  is  the  larger  branch  of  the  two, 
and  chiefiy  supplies  the  coronary  band.  It  anastomoses  with 
its  fellow  of  the  other  side,  forming  a  very  complete  net-work 
termed  the  coronary  circle. 

(hh)  The  posterior  artery  of  the  coronet  bone  (fig.  38,  d),  or 
posterior  artery  of  the  coronary  circle,  .which  passes  backwards, 
unites  with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side,  forming  a  net-work, 
and  supplies  the  synovial  membrane  of  the  coronary  and  pedal 
joints,  the  coronet  bone,  flexor  tendons,  ligaments,  and  skin.* 

*  Professor  Mettam  regards  the  arteries  to  the  coronary  band  as  derived  in  front 
from  the  coronary  circle  and  behind  from  the  artery  to  the  phmtar  cushion.  The 
arteries  from  the  coronaiy  circle  are  two  descending  on  either  side  of  the  extensor 
pedis  tendon.  They  divide,  right  and  left  branches  uniting,  and  the  efl'erents 
from  the  artery  to  the  plantar  cushion  doing  the  same,  and  uniting  with  branches 
from  the  others,  a  circumflex  artery  of  the  band  is  formed. — [Jno.  A.  W.  D.] 


56 


THE   BLOOD-VESSELS    AND   NERVES   OF   THE    FOOT. 


Finally,  the  digital  artery  arrives  at  a  point  between  the 
navicular  bone  and  the  wing  of  the  pedal  bone,  where  it  divides 
into  two  branches,  of  which  one  runs  outwards  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  OS  pedis,  tlie  other  into  the  substance  of  tlie  bone. 
The  former  is  termed — 

(2)  The  preplantar  artery,  or  artery  of  the   wall  (figs.  36,  e! , 

and  38,  e).  Before  passing 
outward  this  vessel  gives 
off  a  twig,  which  is  dis- 
tributed to  tlie  plantar 
cushion  and  sensitive  sole. 
It  then  passes  through  the 
foramen,  between  the  wing 
of  the  OS  pedis  and  tlie 
lateral  cartilage,  and  at 
once  divides  into  three 
branches.  The  most  im- 
portant (tig.  36,  d)  runs  in 
a  foi  .ard  direction  in  tlie 
preplantar  groove,  and  is 
chiefly  distributed  to  the 
sensitive  laminae.  The 
branch  running  backward 
supplies  the  outer  surface 
of  the  posterior  part  of 
the  lateral  cartilage  and 
the  tissues  adjoining  with 
blood  ;  that  running  down- 
wards has  connections  with 
the  artery  next  mentioned. 
(3)  The  plantar  artery, 

of  coronary  plexus  ;  D,  solar  plexus  ;  G,  circumflex  ,'y.T,py.  riprlQl  arfprir  nr  avfpvv 
vein  of  toe ;  3,  posterior  division  of  digital  nerve  ;  ^^^^^^  pcuctl  <\.v  lei  j  ,ui  dl  Ltliy 
4,  cutaneous  branches  of  digital  nerve.  ^f    ^|^q    SCnsitivC    Sole    (fig. 

38,/)  is  a  direct  continuation  of  the  digital.  After  giving  off 
some  twigs  to  the  pedal  joint  (fig.  38,  g),  it  passes,  lying  in  the 
plantar  groove  towards  the  plantar  foramen,  through  which  it 
enters  the  interior  of  the  pedal  bone,  where  it  anastomoses 
with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side,  forming  a  net-work, 
the  plantar-arch  or  semilunar  anastomosis,  from  which  small 
arteries   are   given    off   in   all  directions   (fig.   38,  f').     These 


Fig.  37.  —  Foot,  seen  from  below  and  behind,  a, 
digital  artery  ;  c,  artery  of  the  plantar  cushion  ;  /'", 
twigs  of  the  plantar  artery,  which  divide  to  form 
the  solar  plexus  ;  A^  digital  vein  ;  J5,  lateral  portion 


VEINS   OF   THE    FOOT.  57 

minister  to  the  nutrition  of  the  pedal  bone,  but  a  number, 
termed  the  anterior  laminal  arteries,  escape  from  the  bone  by 
the  numerous  foramina  piercing  its  anterior  surface,  and  supply 
the  sensitive  laminae. 

Others  again,  known  as  the  inferior  communicating,  pass  out- 
wards through  the  eight  to  twelve  or  more  little  channels  open- 
ing on  the  external  surface  of  the  os  pedis,  just  above  its  inferior 
margin  (fig.  36,  f),  run  chiefly  downwards,  and  unite  with  twigs 
given  off  by  the  preplantar  artery,  forming  a  more  or  less  well- 
marked  vessel,  which  encircles  the  lower  border  of  the  pedal 
bone,  and  is  termed  the  circumflex  artery  of  the  toe  (fig.  36,/^'). 
From  this  twigs  pass  backwards  over  the  lower  surface  of  the 
foot,  supplying  chiefly  the  sensitive  sole  (fig.  ?>7,f"). 

2.  The  Veix\s. 

After  the  blood  has  traversed  the  capillaries,  which  in  the 
horn-secreting  structures  are  somewhat  large,  it  is  collected  into 
another  series  of  vessels,  which  form  several  superimposed 
net-w"orks,  and  are  so  intimately  connected  one  with  another 
tliat  its  return  by  one  path,  if  for  any  reason  impeded,  can 
always  be  effected  by  numerous  alternative  channels.  The 
blood  brought  to  the  foot  by  the  arteries  finally  arrives  in  a 
large  vein,  which  runs  parallel  with  the  digital  artery,  and  is 
termed  the  digital  vein  (figs.  36  and  37,  A).  This  vein  is  formed 
by— 

(1)  The  solar  plexus  (fig.  37,  D),  the  net-work  of  small 
veins  which  closely  cover  the  under  surface  of  the  foot, 
aided  by  those  from  the  plantar  cushion  and  sensitive  bars. 
It  discharges  partly  through  the  net-work  formed  by  the  veins 
of  the  plantar  cushion  (solar  plexus)  (fig.  37,  B),  partly  through 
that  formed  by  the  deep  coronary  vein  which  collects  the 
blood  from  the  inner  face  of  the  lateral  cartilage  (fig.  38,  E), 
and  possibly  through  the  coronary  plexus,  with  all  of  which  it 
is  in  direct  communication. 

(2)  The  laminal  plexus  (fig.  36,  C)  resembles,  in  most  re- 
spects, that  of  the  sole.  The  blood  which  it  contains  is  either 
discharged  into  the  coronary  plexus,  or  makes  its  return  by 
the  circumflex  vein  of  the  sole. 

The  venous  net-work  of  the  sensitive  sole  (solar  plexus)  and 


58 


THE   BLOOD-VESSELS   AND   NERVES   OF   THE   FOOT. 


that  of  the  sensitive  laminte  (laminal   plexus)   are    connected 

by— 

(8)  The  circumflex  vein  of  the  toe  (figs.  36  and  37,  G).     This 

is  not  perhaps  a  true 
vein,  but  might  rather 
be  regarded  as  a 
sinus,  being  formed  of 
several  thin -walled 
tubes  or  sacs  of  vary- 
ing length,  which  en- 
circle the  lower  border 
of  the  OS  pedis,  and 
are  of  much  greater 
calibre  than  the  veins 
of  the  solar  and  lam- 
inal ])lexuses  with 
which  they  are  con- 
nected. 

(4)  The  coronary 
plexus  encircles  the 
entire  coronet  with 
the  exception  of  the 
anterior  part,  cover- 
ing both  the  outer 
and  inner  surfaces  of 
the  lateral  cartilage, 
by  which  it  is  divided 
into  a  superficial  and 

paiiying  arteries  /  are  shown  too  thick  ;  they  should  be    a  dcCT)  DOrtion. 

less  than  half  as  broad  as  figured,    a,  digital  artery  ;  h,  r^-,  r>    •    t, 

(«)  The  superficial 

plexus  (fig.  36,  By 
covers  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  lateral  car- 


KiG.  38. — Right  fore-foot,  seenfrom  below,  behind,  and  some- 
what from  one  side,  Tiie  outer  lateral  cartilage  is  re- 
moved, together  with  sufficient  of  the  pedal  bone  to  render 
visible  the  vessels,  etc.,  in  its  interior.    The  nerves  accom 


posterior  sutt'raginal  artery ;  c,  artery  of  plantar  cushion 
(cut  through) ;  d,  posterior  artery  of  coronary  circle  ;  /, 
plantar  artery,  which  anastomoses  with  its  fellow  within 
the  pedal  bone,  and  gives  off  twigs/',  which  pass  to  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  pedal  bone,  just  above  its  lower 
edge  ;  g,  twigs  of  plantar  artery  supplying  cotfin  joint ;  E, 
deep  lateral  layer  of  coronary  plexus,  clothing  inner  sur- 
face of  lateral  cartilage  ;  F,  divided  ends  of  superficial  part  i    •       p 
of  coronary  ple.xus.    From  these  arise  the  digital  vein  (not     tllao'C,  and  is    lOrmcd 
shown) ;  H,  plantar  vein  ;  4,  posterior  branch  of  digital             ^            i        p  i 
nerve  accompanying  vessels  into  pedal  bone  ;  5,  twigs  of    by    VCSSels     irom    the 
posterior  branch  passing  towards  sensitive  lamina;.                           .    .        ,         .              -^ 

sensitive  laminae.  Its 
veins  are  larger,  and  the  meshes  of  the  net-work  wider  than 
those  in  the  sensitive  lamina\  At  the  upper  border  and 
postero-superior  angle  of  the  lateral  cartilage  a  number  of  large 
veins    unite,   and,    in    combination    with    those    of    the    deep 


JsEKVES   OF   THE   FOOT.  5ft 

coronary  plexus  and    of    the  plexus    of   the    plantar  cushion, 
form  the  digital  vein. 

(b)  The  deep  plexus  (fig.  38,  JS)  lies  embedded  in  the  depres- 
sions of  the  inner  surface  of  the  lateral  cartilage,  which  we 
have  already  noticed.  It  likewise  is  formed  by  somewhat 
large  vessels  intimately  connected  with  the  superficial  plexus 
by  means  of  apertures  in  the  lateral  cartilage.  As  a  rule,  this 
plexus  receives — 

(5)  The  plantar  vein  (fig.  38,  H),  which  issues  from  the  foramen 
in  the  pedal  bone,  and  is  to  be  found  lying  in  the  plantar  groove 
along  with  the  plantar  artery.  It  is  formed  by  intraosseous 
branches,  which  collect  and  carrv  off  the  blood  after  its  circula- 
tion  in  the  pedal  bone,  but  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
removal  of  blood  supplied  to  the  horn-secreting  structures. 
During  its  course  it  often  receives  veins  from  the  pedal  articu- 
lation, though,  in  other  cases,  these  open  separately  into  the 
deep  coronary  plexus. 

(6)  The  venous  plexus  of  the  plantar  cushion  (fig.  37,  B)  is 
really  nothing  more  than  an  extension  backwards  and  upwards 
over  the  bulbs  of  the  heel  of  a  part  of  the  solar  plexus,  the 
meshes  of  the  net-work  becoming  wider,  the  veins  larger ; 
afterwards  they  unite  to  form  large  vessels,  which,  as  already 
noted,  assist  in  the  construction  of  the  digital  veins.  During 
its  course  upwards  the  digital  vein  of  the  foot  (A)  lies  in  front 
of  its  artery  at  the  side  of  the  flexor  tendons,  receiving,  in 
addition  to  some  innominate  cutaneous  veins,  the  suffraginal 
and  perpendicular  veins.  After  the  digital  veins  pass  the  fet- 
lock joint,  they  unite  in  front  of  the  flexor  tendons  and  form  a 
plexus,  from  which  the  metacarpal  veins  (3)  arise.  Their  con- 
tained blood,  however,  has  yet  to  traverse  a  large  number  of 
other  vessels  before  it  reaches  the  heart. 

0 

B.  THE  NERVES. 

The  nerves  are  white,  rounded  cords  of  varying  thickness, 
which  arise  from  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and,  in  their  course, 
usually  accompany  the  arteries.  Like  the  latter,  they  divide 
into  stems  and  branches,  and  are  finally  lost  in  the  tissues 
which  they  supply.  Whilst  the  blood-vessels  carry  to  and  fro 
material  for  the  nutrition  of   the  tissues,  the  nerves  preside 


60  THE   BLOOD-VESSELS   AND   NERVES   OF   THE   FOOT. 

over,  and,  in  a  certain  sense,  regulate  the  nutritive  and  secre- 
tive processes,  thus  exercising  a  most  important  influence  on 
growth,  in  addition  to  serving  as  channels  for  the  conveyance 
of  impulses  which  result  in  motion  or  sensation.  The  extra- 
vascular  portions  of  the  foot,  i.e.,  the  horny  tissues,  are  destitute 
of  nerves,  so  that  cutting  the  horn  of  the  hoof  and  the  hairs 
above  it  causes  the  animal  no  pain  ;  but  the  skin  and  the  horn- 
secreting  structures,  on  the  other  hand,  are  freely  supplied. 
For  this  reason  most  diseases  of  the  foot  cause  lively  pain, 
whether  they  result  from  bruising,  pricks  in  shoeing,  inflamma- 
tion, contraction  of  the  foot,  or  any  (me  of  the  many  other 
possible  forms  of  injury. 

The  nerves  which  supply  the  foot  arise  from  the  spinal  cord, 
and  in  the  lower  part  of  the  limb,  where  they  accompany  the 
digital  artery  and  vein,  are  termed  the  digital  nerves. 

Each  digital  nerve  (fig.  36,  1)  divides  at  the  fetlock  into 
two  twigs.  The  anterior  (fig.  36,  ^)  passes  obliquely  down- 
wards and  forwards  over  the  digital  artery  and  vein,  and  splits 
into  a  great  number  of  small  branches,  which  are  distributed  in 
the  skin,  the  coronary  band,  and  the  sensitive  laminae. 

The  posterior  branch  (figs.  36,  37,  3,  and  38,  ^)  is  the  larger, 
and  lies  behind  the  artery,  which  it  accompanies  as  far  as  the 
point  where  the  latter  forms  the  net-work  in  the  pedal  bone. 
On  its  way  to  the  plantar  foramen  it  gives  off  a  few  twigs  for 
the  skin  (figs.  36  and  37,^),  for  the  joints,  and  especially  for  the 
sensitive  frog  and  sensitive  sole.  The  portion  which  accom- 
panies the  plantar  artery  into  the  pedal  bone  divides  into  very 
fine  branches,  which  run  side  by  side  with  the  small  arterioles, 
make  their  way  out  of  the  pedal  bone,  and  are  finally  lost  in 
the  lamina3  (fig.  38,  5). 

A  third  (middle)  branch  of  the  plantar  nerve  can  sometimes 
be  distinguished  running  down  immediately  behind  the  vein 
and  supplying  the  coronet  and  sensitive  laminae.  In  the  horn- 
secreting  tissue,  especially  in  the  sensitive  frog,  peculiar 
structures  have  been  found  connected  with  the  nerves,  which 
are  known  under  the  names  of  Pacinian  or  Vater's  corouscles. 


CHAPTER  Vl. 

THE  PROTECTIVE  STRUCTURES  OF  THE  FOOT. 


The  portions  of  the  limb  which  have,  up  to  the  present,  been 
studied,  are,  like  all  other  portions  of  the  body,  covered  and 
protected  from  injury  by  the  skin.      The  covering  of  the  foot, 
however,  differs   from   that  of  all   other  parts  of  the   body. 
The  Skin.—ThQ   skin 


or 


common   intecjument 


is  divided  into  a  super- 

A. 

ticial  epidermis  and  a 
deeper  corium  or  true 
skin.  The  epidermis  or 
scarf  skin  is  composed 
of  a  multitude  of  cells 
united  tos^ether  so  as  to 
form  a  layer  that  covers 
the  entire  body.  From 
it  are  derived  certain 
structures,  such  as  hairs, 
horns,  and  hoofs,  which 
have  important  func- 
tions to  perform,  and 
so  to  render  parts  of 
the  body  more  lit  for 
the  purposes  to  which 
they  are  put.  In  animals 
that  have  coloured  skins, 
or  skins  provided  with 
a  thick  hairy  cover- 
ing, the  epidermis  is  found  to  be  divided  into  two  por- 
tions, —  one  the  rete  mucosum  or  stratum  malpighii ;  the 
other,     and     one     that    is    constantly     shed     as     scurf,     the 

61 


Fig.  39. — Vertical  section  through  the  human  nail  and 
nail-bed.  a,  stratum  malpighii  of  nail-bed  ;  b,  stratum 
granulosiim  of  nail  -bed  ;  c,  the  deep  layers  of  the  nail 
substance  ;  d,  the  superficial  layers  of  same.  (From 
Klein's  Histology.) 


62  THE   PROTECTIVE   STRUCTURES   OF   THE   FOOT. 

stratum  corneurn.  The  deepest  layer  of  the  stratum  mal- 
pighii,  that  lying  next  to  the  corium,  is  a  very  active 
layer,  tlie  elements  are  capable  of  dividing  and  giving  origin 
to  otliers  that  go  to  take  the  place  of  those  constantly 
being  shed.  Moreover,  from  this  layer  any  loss  of  epidermis, 
as  in  a  wound,  is  made  good.  Further,  from  the  cells  of  this 
layer  all  the  epidermal  appendages  are  derived,  as  we  shall 
presently  explain. 

During  the  passage  of  the  cells,  derived  from  the  actively  grow- 
ing cells  of  the  stratum  malpighii,  to  the  surface,  various  changes 
occur  in  them.  Their  substance  is  converted  into  a  horny  material, 
they  apparently  lose  their  nuclei,  they  become  flattened  and  more 
or  less  dissociated.  Eventually,  they  are  lost  as  scurf.  The 
epidermis  of  the  domestic  animals  generally  is  not  so  thick  as 
that  of  man,  nor  can  it  be  shown  to  consist  of  so  many  well- 
marked  layers  ;  this  masking  is  due  to  the  amount  of  pigment 
contained  in  the  epithelial  cells,  and  the  finer  differentiating 
details  are  thereby  lost. 

The  corium  is  composed  of  a  felted  mass  of  connective  tissue 
(both  white  and  yellow  varieties  are  present,  the  former  in 
greater  amount),  and  it  contains  blood-vessels,  nerves,  lym- 
phatics, etc.  A  certain  amount  of  fat,  too,  is  present,  occupying 
the  interstices  of  the  connective  tissue  and  mostly  near  the 
blood-vessels,  but  fat  is  not  abundant  in  the  corium  proper  ;  it 
is  below  the  corium  in  the  subcutaneous  tissues  that  the  great 
mass  of  adipose  tissue  seen  in  some  animals,  as  the  ass,  is 
<leposited.      Here  it  forms   the  panniculus  adiposus. 

The  corium,  from  its  structure,  is  elastic  ;  the  suppleness  and 
the  power  of  accommodation  possessed  by  the  skin  is  due 
entirely  to  this  feature.  The  blood-vessels  are  very  numerous, 
and  the  capillaries  in  the  superficial  parts  of  the  corium  are 
extremely  close  set  and  complicated.  Much  blood  is  required  in 
this  position  owing  to  the  non-vascularity  of  the  epidermis, 
which  must  draw  its  nourishment  indirectly  from  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  corium.  When  we  consider  the  rapidity  of  growth 
of  the  epidermis,  as  evidenced  by  the  constant  call  upon  it  for 
the  renewal  of  the  hair,  the  renovation  of  the  hoof,  and  the 
amount  of  scurf  lost  daily,  we  must  conclude  that  the  supply 
of  nourishment  required  is  great.  Again,  the  corium  possesses 
nerves,  and   many  of  the  nerves  end  here  in  special  structures 


STKUCTUKE   OF   THE   ^KIN.  6 


o 


termed  eud-organs;  some  of  the  nerves  may  even  penetrate  the 
epidermis  to  germinate  there.  So  the  corium  is  a  highly-sensi- 
tive structure,  and  forms  the  seat  of  the  sense  of  touch.  In  the 
corium  certain  glands  are  present,  such  as  the  sweat  glands, 
which  are  long,  tubular,  highly-convoluted  glands,  opening  upon 
the  surface  of  the  epidermis,  either  alone  or  with  a  hair.  These 
glands  are  lined  by  an  epithelium  that  is  directly  continuous 
with  the  stratum  malpighii  of  the  epidermis.  Imbedded  in 
the  corium  are  the  roots  of  the  hairs.  If  a  hair,  its  sheath,  and 
the  papilla,  as  the  small  conical  elevation  of  the  corium  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pit  is  called,  be  examined,  it  will  be  found  that 
cells  also  derived  from  the  stratum  malpighii  cover  this  papilla, 
and  from  the  proliferation  of  these  cells  the  hair  is  formed, 
moving  from  off  the  papilla  like  a  cast.  As  the  cells  continue 
to  grow  and  multiply,  more  additions  are  made  to  the  newly- 
formed  hair  below,  so  that  eventually  it  projects  from  the  level 
of  the  epidermis.  It  continues  to  increase  in  length  for  a  time, 
but  soon  growth  ceases  and  the  hair  dies,  but  provision  is  made 
for  a  new  hair  in  the  same  sheath  by  a  process  of  budding  and 
the  formation  of  a  new  papilla  by  the  corium,  which  continues 
the  function  of  the  first  one.  The  cells  lining  the  hair  sheath 
and  covering  the  papilla  are  continuous  with  the  stratum 
malpighii,  and  thus  hair  is  as  truly  a  derivative  of  epidermis 
as  scurf.  Growing  out,  also,  from  the  cells  lining  the  hair- 
sheath  and  into  the  corium  at  several  points,  we  have  masses  of 
cells  arranged  to  form  glands,  which  provide  an  oily  secretion 
that  is  poured  into  the  root  sheath  of  the  hair.  These  glands 
are  the  sebaceous  glands,  are  mostly  associated  with  hairs,  and 
provide  the  secretion  that  renders  the  skin  unctuous,  smooth 
and  silky  to  the  touch,  and  less  liable   to  crack. 

The  lioof  derived  from  the  epidermis. —  The  epidermis 
covering  the  corium  of  the  foot  provides  the  horn  that  forms 
the  hoof.  The  epidermis  covering  all  the  corium  below  the 
line  where  the  hair  terminates  has  this  function.  In  other 
words,  from  the  epidermis  covering  the  corium  of  the  perioplic 
ring,  the  coronary  band,  the  sensitive  laminae,  sensitive  frog, 
and  sensitive  sole  horn  grows,  and  hoof  is  developed. 

The  corium  is  not  smooth :  if  the  epidermis  is  removed  it 
will  be  found  to  be  covered  with  minute  projections  stickino- 
apparently  into   the   epidermis.       In   certain  regions,  e.g.,  the 


64  THE   PROACTIVE    STKUCTUKES   OF  THE   FOOT. 

perioplic  ring  and  coronary  band,  these  papillce  are  very 
long.  The  corium,  however,  had  not  always  this  papillated 
appearance ;  in  the  early  stages  of  developmental  life  the 
surface  was  quite  plane,  covered  by  the  epidermis.  During 
the  tenth  week  of  foetal  life  the  epidermis  covering  the  part 
where  the  hoof  is  to  appear  begins  to  grow  into  the  corium 
and  dissect  it  up ;  this  ingrowth  occurs  at  regular  intervals, 
and  proceeds  throughout  the  w^hole  depth  of  the  foot. 
Furtheimore,  a  similar  ingrowth  takes  place  along  the  sides 
and  at  the  inflections  of  the  walls  known  as  the  bars.  The 
epithelial  invasions  continue  to  advance  into  the  corium,  and 
after  a  time  to  form  on  either  face  secondary  invading  points, 
which  behave  in  a  similar  fashion,  though  not  to  the  same  ex- 
tent, as  the  original  ingrowths.  In  this  way  the  corium  is  split 
up  into  a  great  number  of  plates  running  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  these  form  the  sensitive  or  fleshy  laminae.  But  the  epi- 
thelial cells  of  the  epidermis  become  eventually  converted  into 
horn  scales :  such  also  is  the  fate  of  the  epithelial  cells  that  in- 
vade the  corium,  and  hence  we  find  that  occupying  the  axis  of 
any  ingrowth  is  a  horny  plate  that  has  resulted  from  the  pro- 
liferation and  alteration  of  the  cells  of  the  epidermis.  No 
difference,  therefore,  is  to  be  noted  in  the  fate  of  the  daughter 
cells,  save  that  they  have  cohered  to  form  a  horny  plate  after 
the  same  fashion  as  their  relatives,  the  cells  producing  a  hair. 
This  horny  plate  becomes  a  horny  lamina,  and  hence  the  horny 
lamina  comes  to  occupy  the  space  between  two  sensitive 
laminae.  A  sensitive  lamina  results,  therefore,  from  two  incur- 
sions of  the  epidermis  taking  place  into  the  corium,  and  its 
depth  from  free  edge  towards  its  attached  border  represents 
the  depth  of  the  corium  of  the  foot.  The  epithelial  cells  cover- 
ing the  corium  give  rise  to  the  horn  lining  the  horny  capsule, 
whether  it  belongs  to  the  horny  laminae  or  to  the  horn 
cementing  these  to  the  remainder  of  the  hoof.  As  one  proof 
of  their  horn- forming  function,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  horn 
of  the  interior  of  the  capsule  is  uncoloured,  despite  the  colour 
of  the  hoof,  and  this  is  to  be  explained  by  the  absence  of 
pigment  from  the  epithelial  cells  covering  the  corium  in  this 
region.  Again,  if  the  hoof  be  partly  stripped  off,  the  epithelial 
cells  covering  the  soft  structures  speedily  produce  a  new  horny 
pellicle.      On  the  surface  of  the  hoof   the  horn  thus  formed 


ORIGIN   OF   FROG   AND   SOLE.  65 

shows  itself  as  the  white  line  unitino;  wall   and  bars  to  the 
sole. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  wall  is  formed  from  the  cells 
covering  the  coronet.  The  corium  of  this  region  carries 
numerous  papilhc  of  varying  length  ;  those  placed  low  down  are 
usually  longer  than  those  above.  The  papilhc  act  as  moulds, 
upon  which  the  horn  tubes  are  cast,  and  from  them  the  tubes 
grow  like  the  hairs  from  the  papillae  sunk  in  the  corium  of  other 
regions,  as  noted  above.  The  epithelial  cells  covering  the  depres- 
sions between  the  papilhe  form  horn  in  a  fashion  precisely  similar 
to  those  forming  the  horny  laminae,  and  hence  the  horn  tubes 
or  fibres  are  cemented  together  by  a  horny  matrix,  as  may  be 
ascertained  by  consulting  any  good  illustration  of  a  section 
through  the  wall.  Occupying  the  horn  tubes  may  be  found  a 
material  that  has  been  named  intratubular  material ;  this  is  de- 
rived from  the  cells  covering  the  extreme  tips  of  the  papillae  on 
the  coronet,  and  hence  the  different  portions  of  the  horn  form- 
ing the  wall  are  named  tubular,  intertubular,  and  intratubular, 
according  to  their  origin  from  the  cells  covering  the  sides  of  the 
papillae,  the  depressions  between,  or  the  summits  of  the  papillae. 

The  horn  of  the  frog  is  developed  partly  from  the  cells 
covering  the  numerous  papillif  of  the  sensitive  frog  or  from  the 
depressions  between.  The  peculiaiity  of  the  frog  may  partly 
be  accounted  for  by  the  mass  derived  from  the  non-papillated 
regions,  and  partly  by  the  secretion  formed  by  the  sudoriparous 
glands  found  in  the  frog.  Close  and  attentive  examination  of 
these  glands  show  that  they  are  not  true  sweat  glands,  secreting 
sweat  as  it  is  usually  understood.  The  material  formed,  as 
observed  in  the  ducts  of  the  gland  tubes,  resembles  ear  wax 
rather  than  true  sweat,  and  such  a  secretion  would  keep  the 
frog  in  the  condition  we  find  it,  better  than  a  watery  secretion 
subject  to  rapid  evaporation.  Moreoverr,  the  ragged  nature  of 
the  frog  may  be  explained  by  the  hypothesis  that  the  horn  of 
purely  cellular,  as  distinct  from  a  moulded  and  papillated 
origin,  is  present  in  greater  abundance  than  in  the  wall,  and, 
as  we  shall  observe  later,  such  an  explanation  may  be  offered 
as  to  the  structure  of  the  horny  sole,  but  here  no  glands  are 
present.  The  cellular  horn  of  the  frog,  as  distinct  from  the 
tubular  horn,  has  a  remarkable  appearance  on  close  examination 
with  the  microscope.     The  cells  are  disposed  in  two  alternating 

E 


66        THE  PKOTECTIVE  STKUCTURES  OF  THE  FOOT. 

directions,  and  passing  through  these  alternating  strata  and  at 
rioht  ancfles  to  them  are  the  horn  fibres.  Such  an  arrancrement 
must  consolidate  the  whole  structure  and  resist  traction  when 
brought  to  bear  in  any  direction,  and  that  the  toughness  of  the 
horn  of  the  frog  is  surprising  anyone  will  admit  who  has 
attempted  to  pull  a   piece  away. 

The  horny  sole  also  is  developed  from  cells  covering  the 
papilla?  of  the  sensitive  sole,  and  from  those  covering  the  surface 
of  the  corium  between  them.  The  papillae,  however,  are  short, 
and  the  amount  of  horn  derived  from  other  than  a  papillary 
origin  is  relativelv  abundant.  The  two  factors  taken  in  coniunc- 
tion,  the  short  tubes  and  the  cellular  horn,  explain  the  lack  of 
colierence  and  the  rapid  exfoliation.  Furtlier,  there  is  no 
natural  secretion  provided  to  keep  the  horn  from  rapidly 
desiccating  and  crumbling,  as  in  other  regions,  where,  if  no 
secretion  is  provided,  as  in  the  frog,  yet  a  thin  protecting 
pellicle  descends  over  the  nascent  horn,  prevents  it  from  cracking 
until  it  is  sufficiently  hard  to  withstand  the  usages  to  wdiich  it 
is  put.  The  absence  of  secretion,  or  of  periople,  together  with 
alternations  of  excessive  dryness  or  of  moisture  to  which  the 
sole  is  subjected,  accounts  for  the  crumbling  and  breaking  down 
of  the  horny  sole  ;  and,  beyond  this,  it  should  be  mentioned  that 
certain  structures,  as  hairs,  tend  to  break  off  and  disintegrate 
when  they  have  reached  a  certain  length,  or,  in  other  words, 
have  passed  beyond  the  sphere  of  influence  of  the  tissues  from 
which  they  have  been  derived. 

The  perioplic  horn  is  derived  from  the  cells  covering  the 
perioplic  ring.  Here,  again,  as  in  other  regions,  there  are  present 
papilLT.  The  horn  developed  passes  over  and  becomes  super- 
ficial to  the  horn  derived  from  the  coronary  band,  and  its  rela- 
tion to  the  latter  part  of  the  hoof  wall  is  like  that  of  a  varnish. 
It  has  been  termed,  not  inaptly,  an  epithelial  varnish,  and  as  such 
it  acts.  The  newly-formed  horn  from  the  coronary  band  when 
submitted,  as  it  sometimes  unwittingly  is,  to  desiccation,  cracks ; 
and,  according  to  the  extent  of  the  crack,  a  lesion  serious  or  not 
may  arise,  but  fissures  in  the  horny  capsule  are  rarely  seen,  un- 
less of  traumatic  or  of  violent  origin,  if  the  periople  is  still  in- 
tact ;  and,  doubtless,  many  cases  of  so-called  brittle  feet  are  due 
to  a  deficiency  of  secretion  from  the  perioplic  ring.  The  periople 
passes  down  over  the  wall  as  a  thin  pellicle  of  horn,  and  may  be 


THE   l^ERIOPLIC    RING.  67 

traced  as  far  as  the  cleDches,  where  it  commences  to  break  down, 
and  is  removed  as  flakes.* 

The  corium  consists  of  interlacing  bundles  of  wliite  fibrous 
tissue,  with  a  varying  quantity  of  elastic  fibres.  Its  surface  is 
papillated,  i.e.,  it  is  broken  up  by  innumerable  conical  promi- 
nences, which,  though  of  small  size  in  most  situations,  attain  a 
relatively  enormous  development  in  others,  such  as  the  coronary 
band,  sensitive  sole,  frog,  etc. 

A.  THE  HORX-SECRETIXG  STRUCTURES. 

In  the  foot,  stripped  of  its  horny  covering,  five  great  divisions 
of  the  horn-secreting  corium  may  be  recognised.  In  front  and 
at  the  sides,  the  perioplic  ring,  coronary  band,  and  sensitive 
laminae ;  below,  the  sensitive  sole  and  the  sensitive  frog.  To 
prepare  a  specimen  for  study,  the  foot  may  be  macerated  in  water 
for  a  few  days.  In  from  four  to  eight  days,  according  to  the 
prevailing  temperature,  the  hoof  can  be  detached  from  the 
vascular  structures  it  covers.  To  preserve  its  form  the  hoof, 
when  removed,  may  be  filled  with  liquid  plaster  of  paris  : 
otherwise  it  loses  its  characteristic  form  on  drying. 

1.  The  Perioplic  PtiNG. 
(Figs.  40  and  41,  h.) 

The  perioplic  ring  forms  a  band  about  one-sixth  to  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  broad,  lying  between  the  hair-bearing  skin  and  the 
coronary  band,  and  extending  completely  round  the  foot  to  the 
bulbs  of  the  heel.  In  front  it  is  somewhat  broader  than  at  the 
sides,  but  its  greatest  breadth  is  attained  close  to  the  bulbs, 
over  which  it  extends  to  blend  imperceptibly  with  the  frog. 
The  perioplic  ring,  though  somewhat  deeper  seated  than  the 
hair-bearing  corium,  cannot  be  sharply  differentiated  from  it. 
On  careful  examination  under  water,  it  will  be  noted,  however, 
that  between  the  last  hairs  are  little  papilke  belonging  to  the 
perioplic  ring.  The  division  between  the  coronary  band  and 
perioplic  ring  is  indicated  by  a  well-marked,  sharply-defined 
linear  depression,  the  coronary  groove  {Kronenfalz  of  Moller). 

The  outer  surface  of  the  perioplic  ring  bears  numerous, 
closely-arranged,  fine  papilhe,  from  one   to  two  twenty- fourths  of 

*  I    am  indebted  to  Professor  Mettam   for  kindly   supplying  the  foregoing 
passages  (pp.  61-67)  on  the  skin.— [Jno.  A.  AV.  D.] 


68  THE    PROTECTIVE   STRUCTURES   OF   THE   FOOT. 

an  inch  in  length,  which,  from  their  close  apposition,  give  to 
this  part  of  a  freshly-stripped  foot  a  shining  appearance, 
especially  when  the  surface  is  rubbed  with  the  finger  or  with 
any  hard  body,  thus  at  once  distinguishing  the  perioplic  ring 
from  the  hair-bearing  cutis  above,  which  has  a  finely- 
punctated  appearance,  and  from  the  coronary  band,  which 
has  a  rougher  look.  The  perioplic  ring  produces  the  soft  horn 
of  the  periople  and  the  superficial  layer  of  the  wall.  The 
periople  has  been  regarded  as  a  portion  of  the  coronary  band ; 
but,  as  the  horn  which  it  secretes  differs  in  many  respects  from 
that  of  the  coronary  band,  it  has  been  thought  well  to  distin- 
guish it  from  that  structure,  and  to  regard  it  as  a  separate 
portion   of  the  horn -secreting  corium. 

To  show  that  this  superficial  layer  of  horn  is  not  merely  a 
layer  of  epidermis,  which  it  was  long  thought  to  be,  a  foot 
should  be  sawed  through  in  a  circle  about  an  inch  below  the 
coronet  until  the  sensitive  structures  are  reached,  and  macerated 
for  a  few  days.  The  portion  thus  divided  may  then  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  other  parts  of  the  hoof,  and,  with  the  exercise 
of  some  care,  may  slowly  be  detached  from  the  foot.  During 
the  act  it  will  be  seen  that  the  fine  papilhi'  of  tlie  perioplic  ring, 
described  by  Leisering,  are  drawn  out  of  their  horny  sheaths, 
just  as  the  papillte  of  the  coronary  band  are  drawn  from  the 
depressions  in  which   they  lie   in  the  horn  of  the  coronet. 

2.  The  Coronary  Band. 
(Figs.  40  and  41,  c.) 

The  coronary  band  is  a  rounded  structure  about  ^  of  an 
inch  wide,  which  encircles  the  foot  from  the  region  of  one  bulb 
to  that  of  the  other,  and  is  situated  between  the  perioplic  ring 
and  the  upper  extremities  of  the  sensitive  laminse.  It  is  divided 
from  the  perioplic  ring  by  the  above-mentioned  "  coronary 
groove,"  and  is  so  related  to  the  underlying  parts  that,  at  the 
front  of  the  foot,  its  upper  border  extends  above  the  highest 
part  of  the  pyramidal  process  of  the  pedal  bone,  and  lies  in 
front  of  the  lower  third  of  the  coronet  bone,  where  it  covers 
the  extensor  pedis  tendon.  Its  sides  stretch  obliquely  backwards 
and  downwards,  covering  the  lateral  surfaces  of  the  coronet 
])one  and  the  supero-anterior  part  of  the  lateral  cartilage.      It& 


THE   CORONARY    FJAND. 


69 


Fig.  40.  —Foot  deprived  of  horny  capsule,  a,  coriiun, 
bearing  hairs  ;  towards  the  left  the  hairs  have  been 
removed  by  gentle  stroking,  b,  perioplic  ring  ;  c, 
coronary  band ;  d,  sensitive  wall ;  at  the  base  of 
the  laniinaj  can  be  seen  papilhc. 


posterior  portions,  however,  are  overtopped  by  the  lateral  carti- 
lage, and  by  the  perioplic  ring  (compare  fig.  41).  The  coronary 
band  is  convex  on  its  ante- 
rior surface,  and  is  broadest 
and  strongest  above  the 
toe.  Towards  the  sides  it 
somewhat  diminishes  in 
size  and  becomes  less  pro- 
minent, until,  in  the  region 
of  the  bulbs,  it  almost  alto- 
gether loses  its  convex 
shape,  becoming  nearly  Hat. 
The  coronary  band  ex- 
hibits numerous  papilla?, 
whicli,  though  they  vary 
greatly  in  length  and  thick- 
ness, are,  as  a  whole,  much 
longer  and  stronger  than  those  of  the  perioplic  ring.  They  are 
best  marked  in  the  lower  third  of  the  band,  where  the  strongest 
of  them  are  to  be  found, 
as  can  easily  be  seen  by 
examining  the  upper 
part  of  the  hoof  after 
removal.  The  length  of 
these  papilla?  varies  in 
general  from  ^  to  ^  inch, 


thouo'h  Leisering  has 
seen  some  as  short  as 
j^  inch  and  others  as 
long  as  ^  inch.  These 
papillae,  however,  do  not 

cease    at    the    junction  of    fig.  41.     Foot  from  which  the  outer  portion  of  the  liom 

wall  and  the  greirter  part  of  the  sensitive  structures 
have  been  removed,  so  as  to  show  their  relations  to 
the  lateral  cartilage,  a.  divided  surface  of  the  hair- 
l)earing  corium  ;  the  cvit  is  continued  perpendicularly 
downwards  through  the  sensitive  wall,  showing  that 
the  latter  is  only  a  continuation  of  the  former  ;  a, 
hairless  portion  of  hair-l)earing  corium  ;  b,  perioplic 
ring  ;  &',  line  indicating  its  upper  border ;  b",  section 
of  perioplic  horn;  o,  coronary  band;  c  (to  the  left), 
line  indicating  the  upper  border  of  the  coronary  band  ; 
('.",  section  of  wall  at  toe  ;  rf,  sensitive  wall ;  e,  horny 
sole  ;  /,  white  line  ;  .7,  horny  ifrog ;  h,  plantar  cushion  ; 
/,  lateral  cartilage. 


the  coronary  band  and 
plantar  cushion,  but  are 
reflected  in  the  form  of 
two 
about  ^ 


converojino-  rows, 
to  4  an  inch  in 
breadth,  over  the  pos- 
tero-inferior  parts  of  the 
foot,  between   the  margins  of  the  sensitive  laminae  and  of  the 


70 


THE    PROTECTIVE    STRUCTURES   OF   THE    FOOT. 


sensitive  frog.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  point  of  the  sensi- 
tive frog  they  mingle  with  and  are  lost  amongst  the  similarly- 
formed  papilla^  of  the  sensitive 
sole.  It  is  these  rows  of  papilhe 
on  the  inferior  surface  of  the  foot 
which  produce  the  bars.  From 
their  union  with  the  papilhe  of 
the  sole  (compare  fig.  43)  it  will 
be  clear  that  the  bars  and  sole  are 
structurally  continuous,  a  point  to 
which  we  shall  later  refer.  The 
convex  form  of  the  coronary  band 
depends  partly  on  a  considerable 
thickening  of   the   cutis  (see    fig. 

Fig.  42.— Horn-secretiuopapilljcfromthe    41,  C,  SCCtiou  of  the  COrium),  which, 
coronary  band ;  magnified.  .  ^  i  •  •     j    •  t-  •      ,       , 

at  this  point,  is  very  nrm  in  texture, 
indeed  of  almost  cartilaginous  consistency  ;  partly,  however, 
from  the  richness  of  this  region  in  blood-vessels  (see  fig.  36,  B). 
The  coronary  band  produces  the  central  portion  of  the  horny 
wall. 

3.  The  Sensitive  Lamina.. 

(Figs.  40,  41,  d,  and  43,  a.) 

The  corium  below  the  coronary  band  presents  a  very  different 
structure  from  that  above.  Certain  portions  become  thinner 
(compare  with  section  in  fig.  41),  and  the  tissue  shows,  instead 
of  papillse,  a  large  number  of  parallel  closely-packed  leaves, 
which  extend  in  straio'ht  lines  from  above  downwards  and 
forwards.  These  leaves  are  termed  the  sensitive  lamina. 
The  portions  of  the  cutis  bearing  such  leaves  may  be  col- 
lectively termed   the  sensitive  wall. 

The  sensitive  wall  covers  the  anterior  surface  of  the  pedal 
bone  and  the  lower  portion  of  the  lateral  cartilages.  Towards 
the  back  of  the  foot  the  two  sides  approach  the  middle  line, 
forming  an  acute  angle,  and  are  inclined  towards  each  other 
from  above  downwards.  At  the  heels  the  sensitive  wall  of 
either  side  is  sharply  reflected  forwards  at  an  acute  angle  with 
its  former  course,  and  lying  between  the  papillce  of  the  sensitive 
sole  and  those  of  the  reflected  coronary  band  (already  described), 
forms    a  strip  about  1  to  1^;  inches  wide,  which   secretes  the 


THE   SENSITIVE   LAMIX.-E.  .71 

second  (laminal)  constituent  of  the  bars.  AVe,  therefore,  see 
that  the  bars  are  compound  in  origin,  and  may  theoretically  be 
divided  into  a  "  coronary  "  and  a  "  laminal  "  portion. 

Although,  when  the  hoof  is  removed,  the  isolated  sensitive 
laminae  appear  to  lie  closely  packed  together,  they  are  really 
divided  by  deep  furrows,  wdiich,  in  life,  accommodate  the  horny 
laminae  of  the  wall.  The  sensitive  laminae  may  be  compared 
to  the  leaves  of  a  book, —  that  is,  they  are  fastened  by  their 
posterior  margin  to  the  corium  covering  the  pedal  bone  and 
vessels,  whilst  their  anterior  margin  and  lateral  surfaces  are 
free.  The  isolated  laminae  are  very  narrow  above,  just  below 
the  coronary  band,  and  become  broader  as  they  descend, 
attaining  their  greatest  breadth  at  the  centre,  which  breadth 
they  preserve  as  far  as  the  ground,  decreasing,  however,  in 
thickness,  so  that  at  the  base  they  are  markedly  thinner.  They 
terminate  in  papillae  resembling  those  of  the  sensitive  sole. 
The  "  toe  "  of  the  foot  presents  the  broadest  and  most  numerous 
lamina?.  Towards  the  sides  and  quarters  they  become  narrower 
and  more  widely  spaced.  In  the  bars  they  are  most  slender 
and  widest  apart.  In  a  similar  way  the  lamina  of  the 
toe  are  the  longest ;  those  of  the  quarters  become  shorter 
and  shorter,  until  they  gradually  cease.  Their  breadth  varies 
from  2*5  to  ^  of  an  inch,  their  length  from  '^\  at  the  bars 
to  2  or  3  inches  at  the  toe,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  foot. 
The  number  of  laminae  is  not  always  the  same.  As  a  rule, 
there  are  about  25  to  a  centimetre  at  the  toe,*  21  to  22  at  the 
quarters,  15  to  17  at  the  heels,  and  at  the  bars  only  about  10, 
so  that  the  entire  number  may  be  estimated  as  between  550 
and  600,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  foot. 

To  the  naked  eye  the  lamina^  appear  quite  Hat,  but  under 
the  microscope  they  are  seen  to  present  a  number  of  small 
projections  w^hich  have  been  called  secondary  laminae,  running 
more  or  less  in  the  same  direction  as  the  laminae ;  in  fact,  each 
lamina  reproduces  the  same  structure  in  miniature  as  the  entire 
sensitive  wall.  The  sensitive  laminte  produce  the  laminal 
portion  of  the  wall,  and  serve  especially  to  connect  the  corium 
and  the  horny  wall.  The  strength  of  this  elastic  connection  ia 
greatly  increased  by  the  enormous  surface  presented  by  the 
secondary  laminae  (compare   with   fig.   50). 

*  Two  and  a  half  centimetres  eqnal  nearly  one  inch. 


72 


THE  PROTECTIVE  STRUCTURES  OF  THE  FOOT. 


Moller  distinguishes  in  the  sensitive  wall  three  layers,  viz., 
(1)  the  periosteal  layer  (stratiim-periostale) ;  (2)  the  vascular 
layer  (stratum-vasculosum) ;  and  (3)  the  real  laminal  layer 
(stratum-phyllodes),  corresponding  to  the  corium  of  other 
parts  of  the  body.  Moller  estimates  that  at  the  junction  of 
the  upper  and  middle  thirds  of  the  toe  primary  laminae  are 
from  24  0  to  J  Jo  inch,  and  the  secondary  laminse  from  q^q  to 
3J0  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  wall 
the  primary  laminae  are  about  4}^  inch,  the  secondary  about 
12^00  to  480  inch.  At  the  centre  of  the  toe,  in  many  cases, 
a  small  depression  may  be  found,  which  extends  on  to  the 
wall,  and  contains  papillae  corresponding  in  position  with  the 
little  rounded  prominence  to  be  found  at  the  toe  of  the  horny 
capsule. 

4.  The  Sensitive  Sole. 
(Fig.  43,  b.) 

The  corium,  after  clothing  the  wall,  is  reflected  over  the  lower 
border  of  the  pedal  bone  to  the  sole,  and  then  loses  its  laminal 

character,  except  at  the  bars,  ex- 
hibiting instead  papillae  which 
partly  resemble  those  of  the  perio- 
plic  ring,  partly  those  of  the  coro- 
nary band.  The  portion  of  the 
under  surface  of  the  foot  covered 
by  long,  thick  papillae,  like  those 
of  the  coronet,  is  termed  the 
sensitive  sole  (fig.  43,  h).  This, 
often  flecked  with  black  colourint^ 
material,  or  irregularly  tinted, 
includes  the  entire  anterior  third 
of  the  under  surface,  and  is  divided 

Fig.  43. — Lower  surface  of  foot  denuded 
of  horny  capsule,    a,  sensitive  bars ;  b,     intO     tWO     partS     by    the     SCnsitivC 
sensitive  sole  ;  c,  sensitive  frog  ;  rf,  fur-  . 

row  of  the  frog-  into  which  the  "  frog-   fro"',  betwccu  which  and  the  scnsi- 

stay  '  fits ;  e,  bulbar  expansion  of  perio-       . 

plic  ring,  which  is  seen  to  be  continu-    tivC    SOlc,    hoWOVCr,    intervene     the 

ous  with  the  sensitive  frog. 

bars.  The  sensitive  sole  is  con- 
nected, as  already  remarked,  with  the  coronary  band  by  a 
number  of  rows  of  large  papillae  insinuated  between  the 
"  laminal  "  portion  of  the  bars  (secreted  by  a  continuation  of 
the  sensitive  laminae)   and   the   sensitive  frog.      The  sensitive 


THE   SENSITIVE   SOLE   AND   FROG.  73 

sole  carries  a  very  well-marked  venous  plexus,  and  produces 
the  horn  of  the  sole. 


5.  The  Sensitive  Viioa. 
(Fig.  48,  c.) 

The  sensitive  frog  is  that  portion  of  the  corium  which  covers 
the  plantar  cushion.  It  clothes  the  groove  of  the  frog  (d), 
and  insensibly  unites  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  bulbs  (e) 
with  the  perioplic  ring,  so  that  no  distinct  boundary  can  be 
drawn  between  them.  In  general,  the  sensitive  frog  is  not 
so  well  supplied  with  vessels  as  the  sensitive  sole,  and,  therefore, 
presents  a  lighter  colour.  The  papillae  on  the  lower  surface 
are  somewhat  longer  than  those  at  the  sides  and  base.  The 
sensitive  frog  produces  the  horny  frog. 

Under  the  term  sensitive  frog  is  often  included  the  plantar 
cushion,  together  with  its  horn-secreting  covering.  This,  how- 
ever, is  anatomically  incorrect.  The  sensitive  frog  clothes  the 
plantar  cushion  in  the  same  way  as  the  sensitive  sole  clothes 
the  under  surface  of  the  os  pedis,  and  the  sensitive  wall  the 
laminal  surface  of  this  bone.  The  plantar  cushion  and  the 
horn-secreting  surface  are  entirely  different  structures.  The 
former  is  not  a  mere  thickening  of  the  latter,  but  a  tissue, 
formed  of  elastic  and  fibrous  components,  which  fulfils  a  special 
physiological  function. 

B.  THE  HORXY  STRUCTURES. 

The  collective  masses  of  horn  produced  by  the  active  epithelium 
of  the  foot  are  termed  the  hoof  (fig.  44).  This  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  capsule  enclosing  the,  lower  end  of  the  limb, 
and  comports  itself  towards  the  latter  much  as  a  shoe  to  the 
human  foot.  The  connection  between  the  horny  capsule  and  the 
corium  is  so  intimate  that  in  the  healthy  tissues  the  two  can 
never  be  dissected  apart.  Only  in  certain  diseases  of  the  foot 
do  the  sensitive  and  insensitive  parts  of  tlie  foot  become  more 
or  less  disunited.  Occasionally,  and  in  very  severe  cases,  the 
hoof  may,  however,  part  from  the  corium,  but  after  death  decom- 
position very  soon  loosens  the  connection,  the  line  of  separation 


74 


THE  PROTECTIVE  STRUCTURES  OF  THE  FOOT. 


occurring  alone  the  row  of  cells  from  which   the   inner  portion 

of  the  horny  capsule  is  developed. 

The   hoof  may  be  divided  into  three  different  parts,  which, 

however,  though  differ- 
ing from  one  another 
in  essential  particulars,, 
must,  on  account  of 
their  position  and  func- 
tion, be  looked  on  as 
three  parts  of  one  and 
the  same  structure.  No 
one  of  these  portions  can 
be  removed  without  in- 
iury  to  all  and  without 

Fig.  44. — Hoof  with  vascular   st)uctiues   removed,     a,  ''  .  . 

periople;  owing  to  maceration  ill  water  this  is  swollen  weakcuin^''     all.  iheU' 

and  prominent;  the  outer  border  exhibits  adherent  ,     .,...,  .5^ 

hairs,  the  inner  fine  punctations.    Towards  the  heels  mdlVlSlbllltV  and  UlUtU- 
(«')  the  periople  is  seen  to  broaden  out  and  become  .  " 

continuous  with  the  horny  buiijs.  At  a"  a  portion  of  al  interdependence  are 

horn  has  been  removed.     From  the  point  to  h  consti-  i  i  i 

tutes  the  toe,  from  6  to  c  the  quarter,  and  from  c  to  d  bcst  UUdcrstOOd  by  CarC- 
the  heel  of  the  foot ;  e,  projecting  portion  of  frog  ; /,  -u       • 

coronary  furrow  or  cutigeral  groove,  showing  numer-  f ully    regarding    the    lU- 
ous  punctations ;  n,  laininal  sheath  of  wall.  .  ^  ^         e        e 

tenor  or  a  hoot  arter 
removal.  At  no  point  can  sharp  divisions  be  recognised  ;  each 
part  unites  and  becomes  continuous  with  the  other.  The  three 
parts  of  the  hoof  are  wall,  sole,  and  frog. 


1.  The  Horky  Wall 

Is  that  part  of  the  hoof  which  is  visible  when  the  horse  is 
standing  (fig.  44),  and  which  protects  the  foot  in  front  and  on 
either  side.  If  we  compare  the  foot  with  a  man's  shoe,  the 
wall  represents  the  upper,  though,  with  this  difference,  that  it 
extends  down   to  the  ground  and  embraces  the  sole. 

The  horny  wall  exactly  responds  both  in  position,  course,, 
and  direction,  as  well  as  in  the  combination  of  its  various 
parts,  to  the  sensitive  structures  that  produce  it.  It  extends 
obliquely  downwards  from  the  border  of  the  skin,  decreasing 
in  length  (or  height)  towards  the  back.  At  the  heels  it 
bends  inwards  at  either  side  (compare  figs.  45,  46,  and  47), 
runs  for  a  short  distance  in  a  forward  direction,  and  gradually 
becomes  lost  in  the  sole.  The  horny  wall,  therefore,  does  not 
surround  the  foot   like  a  riuQ-,  but  its  extremities  are  infolded 


THE    HORNY   WALL. 


75 


and  inclined  towards  each 
middle  posterior  angle  be- 
ing open  at  the  back  for 
the  reception  of  the  frog, 
the  two  lateral  facing  for- 
wards and  grasping  the 
posterior  prolongations  of 
the  sole. 

The  horny  wall  presents 
an  outer  (anterior)  smooth, 
slightly  ribbed,  or  undu- 
lating surface,  convex  from 
side  to  side  (hg.  44),  and 
an  inner  (posterior)  and 
correspondingly  concave 
surface  (figs.  47  and  48) : 
an  upper  border  in  contact 
with  the  cutis,  and  a  lower 
which  marginates  the  sole. 
The  upper  (fig.  44,  a)  is 
o-enei'allv  known  as  the 
coronary  border,  whilst  the 
the  plantar  or  bearing 
border. 

For  convenience  of  de- 
scription the  wall  may  be 
divided  by  imaginary  ver- 
tical lines  ;  thus,  one  drawn 
through  the  centre  of 
the  hoof  will  divide  the 
wall  into  an  inner  and  an 
outer  half  (inner  and  outer 
walls),  or  four  lines  may 
be  so  drawn  as  to  divide 
the  wall  into  five  equal 
parts,  termed  respectively 
the  toe,  the  inner  and  outer 
quarters,  and  the  inner  and 
outer  heels. 

(a)  The  anterior  portion 


other,   forming  three    angles,    the 


7/» 


Fig.  45.— Under  suvface  i)f  right  fore-fuot.  a,  a, 
Ijearing  surface  of  toe  ;  a.  b,  uf  quarters ;  b,  c,  of 
heels ;  d,  commencement  of  bars  ;  e,  lateral  aspect 
of  bars ;  f,  sole  ;  f,  seat  of  corn ;  <j,  white  line, 
which  is  seen  to  be  reflected  forwards  between  sole 
and  bars  at  g';  h.  horny  frog  ;  /,  bulb  or  glome  of 
frog;  k,  bulb  of  heel;  I,  median  lacuna  or  cleft  of 
frog ;  m,  lateral  lacuna^  of  frog. 

lower  (figs.  45  and  46,  a)  is  termed 


/r  d     ^' 


Fig.  4G.     Under  surface  of  right  liind-foot.     The 
lettering  is  as  in  tig.  45. 

or  toe  (fig.  44  from  the  point  of  the 


76  THE   PROTECTIVE    STRUCTURES   OF   THE   FOOT. 

toe  to  h,  and  figs.  45  and  46  from  a  to  a)  extends  on  either  side 
of  the  middle  line  for  a  distance  equal  to  about  one-tenth  of 
the  entire  circumference  of  the  foot ;  it,  therefore,  comprises 
about  one-fifth  of  the  whole  extent  of  the  wall. 

(b)  The  quarter  (fig.  44,  h  to  c,  and  ligs.  45  and  46,  a  to  h)  ex- 
tends backwards  from  tlie  boundary  of  the  toe,  on  either  side, 
for  a  like  distance. 

(c)  The  heel  (fig.  44,  c,  e,  and  tigs.  44  and  45,  h,  d)  includes 
the  parts  between  tlie  boundary  of  the  quarter  and  the  inflec- 
tion of  the  ]^ars. 

{d)  The  inflection  of  the  bars  (figs.  45  and  46,  d,  47,  ^^  &)  is  the 
spot  where  the  wall  turns  in  a  forward  direction,  forming  an  angle. 

{e)  The  continuation  of  the  wall  in  a  forward  direction 
between  the  sole  and  horny  frog  is  named  the  bars  (figs.  45 
and  46,  c,  and  fig.  47,  c). 

The  direction,  length,  and  thickness  of  the  wall  at  the  toe, 
quarters,  and  heels  respectively,  vary  not  only  in  the  fore  and  hind 
feet  of  the  same  horse,  but  even  in  the  two  halves  of  the  same  hoof. 

In  the  normal  lioof  the  wall  of  the  toe  has  the  s^reatest  in- 
clination  to  the  oround  surface,  forrain**-  in  fore-feet  an  an^ie  of 
45°  to  50°,  in  hind-feet  of  50°  to  55°.  This  inclination  is  less 
at  the  quarters  and  heels,  where  the  wall  becomes  nearly  perpen- 
dicular. It  may,  indeed,  surpass  a  right  angle,  the  wall  in  such 
cases  running  from  above  downwards  and  inwards.  The  angle 
between  the  quarter  and  the  ground  surface  is  always  greater  in 
the  outer  portion  of  the  wall,  the  reason  being  that  the  outer  wall 
describes  a  larger  circle  than  the  inner  (compare  figs.  45  and  46). 

The  fact  that  the  wall  slopes  outwards  renders  it  evident 
that  the  circumference  of  the  foot  must  be  lijreater  at  the  bear- 
ing  than  at  the  coronary  margin  (compare  fig.  44). 

The  height  of  the  wall  decreases  from  the  toe  to  the  inflec- 
tion of  the  bars,  and  to  a  greater  proportionate  extent  in  fore 
than  in  hind  feet.  No  exact  measurements  can  be  given,  as  so 
nmch  depends  on  the  race,  age,  use,  conformation,  etc.,  of  the 
animal,  and  great  differences  may  exist  without  necessarily 
rendering  the  hoof  abnormal.  The  length  of  the  toe,  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  quarters  and  heels,  depends  on  the 
angle  of  the  foot,  and  is  about  in  the  proportion  of  3  :  2  :  1,  as 
2i  :  2  :  1  or  as  2  :  li  :  1. 

The  thickness  of  the  wall  varies  greatly  ;  from  the  toe  to 


THE    BARS   OF   THE    FOOT. 


77 


the  heels  it  gradually  diaiinishes,  and  more  markedly  in  fore 
than  in  hind  feet,  the  exact  rate,  however,  depending  on  the 
size  and  form  of  the  hoof  and  the  breed  of  the  animal.  The 
larger  and  the  more  oblique  the  hoof  the  thicker  its  walls ; 
the  more  nearly  vertical  the  wall  the  less  its  thickness.  Coarse - 
bred  horses,  as  a  rule,  have  thicker  walls  than  finer  breeds. 
According  to  Mayer,  careful  measurements  gave  the  following 
results,  which  are  indicated  in  millimetres : — 


Toe. 

9 

Outer  and  Inner 

Quarters  measured 

at  Junction  with 

Heel. 

Fore-foot  of  pure  Arab, 

7 

5 

Hind- foot  of  pure  Arab, 

8-r» 

7 

6 

Medium-sized  fore-foot  of  well-bred  horse, 

13 

8 

7 

Hind- foot  of  well-bred  horse,    . 

11 

8 

7"5 

Large  fore-foot  of  coarse-bred  horse, 

16 

11 

10 

Hind-foot  of  coarse-bred  horse, 

13 

10 

9 

Small  upright  fore-foot, 

10-5 

8T) 

5 

Small  upright  hind- foot  of  the  same  horse, 

10 

6 

5-5 

Average  thickness, 

11-37 

8-18 

6-87 

These  figures,  which  in  general  agree  with  many  measure- 
ments made  by  Leisering,  show  that  the  toe  of  the  fore-foot  is, 
in  general,  a  thicker  toe  than  that  of  the  hind  in  the  same 
horse.  Vertical 

sections,  however, 
show  that  the 
thickness  of  the 
wall  at  any  given 
point  is  the  same 
from  coronet  to 
Lrround  surface. 

The  angle  of  the 

bars    (fi'^'S     45     and  fig.  47.— Mesial  vertical  section  of  hoof  with  horny  frog  re- 

^    °   '  moved,  to  show  the  disposition  of  the  bars.     At  a,  b  the  wall 

46    ci)  is    as  stated  is  reflected  inwards  and  forwards  to  form  the  bar  which  finally 

'      ^       '                         '  amalgamates  with  and  is  lost  in  the  sole  at «;  a,  a' (the  lighter 

the       point       where  tinted  part)  shows  the  spot  from  which  the  horny  frog  has 

^  been  removed. 

each    half    of    the 

wall  is  reflected  in  a  forward  direction.     As  the  wall  and  bar 


78  THE   PROTECTIVE   STRUCTURES   OF   THE    FOOT. 

are  continuous,  the  result  is  to  produce  at  the  heel  a  strong 
three-cornered  mass  of  horn,  from  which  the  bar  runs  obliquely 
downwards  and  forwards,  in  contact  with  the  posterior  part  of 
the  corresjDonding  limb  of  the  frog. 

The  bars  are  a  continuation  of  the  wall,  which  turns  inward 
at  the  angle  just  mentioned.  They  run  forward  on  either  side 
of  the  frog,  following  its  general  direction,  though,  as  they 
gradually  become  continuous  with  the  horny  sole,  they  do  not 
actually  reach  the  point  of  the  frog.  The  bars  are  inclined  to 
the  perpendicular,  so  that  their  upper  borders  approach  more 
nearly  to  the  middle  line  of  the  foot  than  the  low^er,  which 
are  closer  to  the  wall.  In  other  words,  tlie  lower  borders 
are  wider  apart  than  the  upper.  Each  bar,  therefore,  has  one 
surface  turned  towards  the  middle  line  of  the  hoof,  and  one 
turned  from  it,  the  former  being  the  lower  or  inner,  the 
latter  the  upper  or  outer  (figs.  45  and  46,  c).  The  upper  sur- 
face lies  within  the  horny  capsule  and  bears  horny  laminae. 
The  lower,  on  the  other  hand,  is  free,  and  is  bounded  on  one 
side  by  the  furrow  marginating  the  frog  (lateral  lacuna  of  the 
frog)  ;  its  upper  part  unites  with  the  upper  part  of  the  corre- 
sponding side  of  the  frog  (compare  with  the  light-shaded  portion 
in  fig.  47,  a  to  a').  The  upper  border  (fig.  48,  c)  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a  prolongation  of  the  coronary  groove,  and  is  punctated  ; 
the  lower  border  comports  itself  like  the  bearing  surface  of 
other  portions  of  the   wall  (figs.  45   and  46). 

The  relations  of  the  bars  are  often  erroneously  described. 
Certain  authors  believe  that  they  extend  as  distinct  and  well- 
defined  portions  of  the  wall  to  the  point  of  the  frog,  and 
there  come  in  contact.  This,  however,  is  certainly  not  the 
ease,  though  it  might  appear  so  on  superficial  examination. 

Their  real  extent  is  at  once  seen  by  studying  the  inside  of  a 
hoof  after  removal.  As  only  those  parts  which  exliibit  laminae 
can  be  regarded  as  wall,  the  presence  of  lamina  may  be  taken 
as  showing  exactly  how  far  the  bars  extend.  A  study  of 
the  lower  sensitive  surface,  on  the  other  hand,  may  easily  lead 
to  errors,  and  for  two  reasons.  Firstly,  because  the  bars,  like 
every  other  part  of  the  wall,  grow  in  an  oblique  direction 
downwards  and  forwards,  but  also  towards  the  bearing  surface 
of  the  wall.  Under  these  circumstances,  they  extend  further 
forward  on  the  ground  than  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  sole. 


THE   PEKIOPLE.  79 

Secondly,  because  the  sensitive  bar  insensibly  fades  into  the 
sensitive  sole,  both  being  marginated  by  the  frog ;  as,  however, 
the  horn  of  the  sole  wears  away  in  the  same  direction  as  that 
of  the  bar,  and  the  tw-o  unite  close  to  the  lateral  lacuna  of  the 
frog,  it  is  clear  that  no  hard  and  fast  line  can  be  draw^n  between 
the  two  on  this  surface. 

By  examining  the  surface  of  the  hoof,  however,  first  discover- 
ing the  white  line  between  the  sole  and  bar  and  following  this, 
it  becomes  clear  that  the  line  (figs.  45  and  46,  g')  never  attains 
the  point  of  the  frog,  always  ceasing  somewhat  short  of  it,  and, 
therefore,  that  the  bars  and  sole  are  united  into  one  mass  a  little 
behind  the  point  of  the  frog.  The  bars  must  accordingly  be 
regarded  as  an  important  means  of  union  between  the  horny 
wall  and  horny  sole.  At  all  other  points,  and  over  a  much 
more  extensive  area,  the  two  portions  of  the  hoof  are  united 
through  the  medium  of  the  white  line — a  much  weaker  and  less 
rigid  method  of  union.  This  fact  is  not  without  importance  in 
connection  with  the  physiology  of  the  foot. 

The  wall  may  be  divided  into  three  superposed  layers,  cor- 
responding to  the  position  of  tlie  epidermis  from  which  they 
arise. 

A.  The  periople  is  the  most  superficial  and  is  formed  by  the 
perioplic  ring.  It  consists  of  soft  horu,  which  in  living  animals 
is  yielding,  very  elastic,  and  when  dry  presents  a  glistening 
appearance.  In  horses  which  have  stood  for  a  considerable 
time  in  water,  or  in  dead  feet,,  which  have  been  macerated,  this 
horn  swells  up,  becomes  white,  and  exhibits  a  fibrillated  char- 
acter. It  then  forms  a  soft,  elastic,  convex  strip  of  varying 
breadth  (fig.  44,  a  to  cd ,  and  fig.  48,  a),  which  extends  around 
the  foot  parallel  with  the  groove  below  as  far  as  the  bulbs  of 
the  heel.  It  is  somewhat  broader  at  the  toe  than  at  the 
quarters.  At  the  heels  it  increases  in.  width  and  is  prolonged 
over  the  soft  structures  of  the  bulbs  {ci'\  The  perioplic  horn 
of  either  side  becomes  continuous  at  the  heels,  where  it  extends 
upwards  in  a  point,  rising  rather  above  the  highest  part  of  the 
frog.  When  removed  by  maceration,  it  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  a  broad  strip,  the  inner  surface  of  which  is  free  above, 
but  below  covers  and  is  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the  wall 
and  the  posterior  portion  of  the  frog,  with  the  horn  of  which 
it  imperceptibly  unites.     Its  upper  (free)  portion  is  punctated. 


80  THE   PROTECTIVE   STRUCTURES   OF   THE    FOOT. 

the  small  holes  accommodating  the  horn-secreting  papillse  of 
the  perioplic  ring.  Fresh  sections  of  the  entire  foot  (fig.  41,  5'') 
show  that  its  surface  is  convex  and  that  it  extends  into  the 
depression  exhibited  by  the  coronary  band. 

Although  the  perioplic  horn  is  most  distinct  and  easily  seen 
at  the  upper  border  of  the  hoof,  at  which  point  it  forms  a  light- 
coloured  ring  and  extends  towards  the  bulbs  of  the  heels,  it  is 
by  no  means  confined  to  these  points.  With  the  exception  of 
the  bars  it  covers  all  portions  of  the  wall  (fig.  44,  a"),  giving 
the  hoof  a  more  or  less  shiny  appearance.  Hoofs  which  have 
been  rasped,  and  the  hoofs  of  horses  which  work  continuously 
in  loose  ground,  have  usually  lost  this  thin  layer,  though  it  may 
be  found  at  the  heels  close  to  the  frog,  and  near  the  upper 
margin  of  the  wall,  whence  it  is  less  frequently  rasped  away. 
The  hoofs  of  young  equines  always  show   it. 

This  sheath  has  been  the  subject  of  most  varying  views. 
Some  altogether  deny  its  existence ;  others  regard  it  as  a  pro- 
longation of  the  cuticle,  but  such  views  chiefly  depend  on  want 
of  close  observation.  Leisering  regards  it  as  a  layer  of  soft  horn, 
produced  by  the  perioplic  ring.  It  is  easily  seen  in  animals 
which  have  been  shod  and  in  which  the  sheath  has  been  partially 
torn  away.  Macerated  dead  feet  exhibit  it  very  distinctly. 
The  soft  striated  prolongation  from  the  perioplic  ring,  which 
is  then  easy  to  follow,  shows  beyond  doubt  the  direct  com- 
munication between  the  sheath  and  perioplic  ring,  and  the 
correctness  of  the  statement  that  the  sheath  grows  from  the 
ring.  On  drying,  the  whitish  look  of  the  sheath  disappears  and 
is  succeeded  by  a  brittle,  shiny  appearance. 

The  essential  diflerence  between  the  periople  (and  its  expan- 
sion at  the  heels)  and  the  horn  of  the  wall  or  frog  is  well  seen 
by  studying  the  development  of  the  parts.  In  a  20-24-week 
foetus,  a  sharply  marked  strip  will  be  found  between  the  future 
cutis  and  the  hoof,  indicating  the  position  of  the  perioplic  ring, 
and  showing  no  visible  horn  formation,  wliilst  the  wall,  sole,  and 
frog  are  already  quite  covered  by  masses  of  young  horn. 

B.  The  middle  sheath  is  produced  by  the  coronary  band,  and 
is  by  far  the  strongest  of  the  three.  It  consists  of  a  very 
tough,  strong,  and  durable  horn,  which  scarcely  swells  up  in 
water  and  is  the  most  difhcuit  to  cut  of  all  the  varieties  of 
horn.      It  forms  the  principal  mass  of  the  wall.      The  middle 


THE  MIDDLE  SHEATH  OF  THE  WALL. 


81 


sheath  begins  at  the  furrow  (figs.  44,  /,  and  48,  l)  formed  by  its 
upper  border,  which  is  known  anatomically  as  the  "  cutigeral 
sjroove."  This 
o-roove  is  broad- 
est  in  front,  be- 
comincj  narrower 
as  it  passes  back- 
ward, and  accom- 
modates the  co- 
ronary band.  In 
the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  bulbs 
it  is  reflected 
downwards    and 

forwards,  loses  its  fig.  4S.— a  portion  of  the  wall  has  beeu  removed  by  making  verti- 
cal cuts  through  the  wall  of  the  toe  and  heel,  and  a  horizontal 
cut  connecting  them  just  above  the  bearing  margin,  a,  periople ; 
b,  coronary  furrow  or  cutigeral  groove,  which  is  seen  to  become 
reflected  forwards  at  c,  and  to  form  the  upper  border  of  the  bar ; 
(/,  the  middle  sheath  at  the  toe,  and  cV,  at  the  heel ;  e,  horizontal 
section  of  wall  just  above  the  bearing  surface  ;  /,  laminal  sheath  ; 
this  is  reflected  inwards  and  forwards  at  /  to  form  part  of  the 
bar  ;  /",  free  edge  of  horny  lamina,  which  is  continuous  with  tlie 
white  portion  of  the  middle  sheath  ;  g,  horny  sole  ;  h,  white  line  ; 
i,  small  horny  prominence  at  the  centre  of  the  toe  ;  k,  portion  of 
frog  which  becomes  continuous  with  the  upper  margin  of  the 
bar  ;  I,  frog  stay,  dividing  the  upper  groove  of  the  frog  into  two 
pai'ts. 


concave  shape, — 
in  fact,  ceases  to 
be  a  groove, — 
and  is  continued 
by  a  slightly  con- 
vex or  fiattish 
strip  (fig.  48,  c), 
which  indicates  the  upper  border  of  the  bars.  Its  course  is  in 
a  forward  direction  between  the  horny  frog  and  the  continuation 
of  the  innermost  sheath  of  the  wall,  until  finally  it  is  lost  in 
the  upper  surface  of  the  horny  sole. 

The  floor  of  the  cutigeral  groove  is  closely  punctated,  the 
small  holes  being  the  openings  of  funnel-shaped  depressions,  in 
which  rest  the  papilke  of  the  coronary  band,  and  which  have 
the  general  character  shown  in  fig.  53.  The  holes  in  the 
coronary  furrow  are  much  larger  than  those  in  the  perioplic 
ring.  They  vary,  however,  those  in  tlie  lowest  third  of  the 
furrow  being  rather  larger  and  less  closely  packed  than  those  in 
the  upper.  Next  the  laminal  (innermost)  sheath  are  one  or  two 
rows  of  still  smaller  holes.  Generally  speaking,  where  the  holes 
are  of  large  size  the  inner  surface  of  the  middle  sheath  is 
coloured  white,  even  where  the  entire  wall  is  dark  coloured  ; 
in  light-coloured  feet  this  part  is  distinguished  by  its  still  paler 
tint.  The  fact  can  easily  be  verified  on  section.  This  division 
of  the  middle  sheath  into  an  outer,  hard  and  dark,  and  an  inner, 

F 


82  THE   PROTECTIVE   STRUCTURES   OF  THE   FOOT. 

soft,  tough  and  light-coloured  portion  is  of  some  practical 
importance,  as  the  two  sometimes  become  separated,  probably 
in  consequence  of  their  unequal  hardness. 

The  outer  surface  of  the  middle  sheath  in  perfectly  normal 
feet  often  presents  transverse  rings  which  must  not  be  con- 
fused with  those  resulting  from  diseases  of  the  feet.  The 
middle  sheath  is  the  chief  constituent  of  the  wall,  which  ex- 
tends below  the  sole  and  forms  the  bearino-  margin  of  the 
foot. 

C.  The  laminal  or  connecting  sheath  (tigs.  44,  g,  47  and  48,  /) 
is  the  innermost  layer  of  the  wall ;  it  consists  of  a  large  number 
of  closely  packed  horny  laminj^,  which  cover  the  inner  face  of 
the  inner  sheath  from  the  lower  margin  of  the  cutigeral  groove 
to  the  horny  sole. 

The  laminal  sheath  is  moulded  on  the  sensitive  lamina:^  and 
formed  by  the  epithelial  cells  covering  them.  The  horny 
laminoe  interdigitate  with  the  sensitive  lamina?,  so  that  each 
sensitive  lamina  is  grasped  by  two  horny  laminae  and  each  horny 
lamina  by  two  sensitive  laminae.  As  the  inner  sheath  approaches 
the  bars,  its  lamina?  decrease  in  length  to  disappear  altogether 
in  the  bars  themselves  (fig.  48,/'),  the  upper  surface  of  which 
(corresponding  to  the  middle  sheath  of  the  wall)  it  covers.  In 
freshly  stripped  hoofs  the  individual  laminae  feel  smooth  and 
slippery,  and  can  be  moved  to  and  fro,  but  when  dry  they 
become  stiff  and  usually  assume  a  wavy  contour.  In  number, 
course,  breadth,  etc.,  they  correspond  exactly  with  the  sensitive 
laminae,  of  which  they  form  the  counterpart ;  their  free  borders, 
therefore,  point  inwards  towards  the  centre  of  the  foot.  The 
upper  end  of  a  horny  lamina  begins  at  the  lower  margin  of  the 
cutigeral  groove  and  is  slender,  as  is  the  lower  end  (fig.  49,  a), 
which  seems  to  become  smaller  and  to  disappear  where  it  meets 
the  sole.  Between  the  horny  laminae,  at  this  point,  are  little 
holes  (fig.  49,  h)  for  the  reception  of  the  papillae  of  the  corium, 
which  lie  at  the  lower  ends  of  the  sensitive  laminae.  The 
diminution  in  size  and  disappearance  of  the  horny  laminae  is 
only  apparent;  in  point  of  fact,  they  preserve  their  entire 
breadth  between  the  second  sheath  of  the  wall  and  the  horny 
sole,  which  parts  they  unite  by  means  of  the  horn  secreted  in 
their  interspaces.  This  arrangement  can  readily  be  verified  on 
vertical  section.      The  horny  laminae  lying  between   the  wall 


THE  LAMINAL  OR  CONNECTING   SHEATH. 


83 


and  horuy  sole,  together  with  the  horn  filling  their  interspaces, 
are  termed  the  white  line,  as  will  be  explained  in  treating  of 
the  horny  sole. 

If  more  closely  examined  the  individual  laminae  in  the  fresh 
state  are  each  seen  to  present  a  striped  appearance  (fig.  56, 
d-e),  the  stria tions  extending  in  an 
oblique  direction  from  the  free  border 
upwards  and  outwards ;    attempts  to 

tear  through  a  lamina  succeed  best  ^;f:i^^::'/^:^^'y>iy:^^?f^;^A 
when  made  in  this  direction  (fig.  56,/).  ^^^^^^^^^^S^ 
Until  recently,  it  was  generally  stated 
that  the  horny,  like  the  sensitive, 
laminae  possessed  secondary  laminae 
running  in  the  direction  of  their 
greatest  length.  Professor  Mettam, 
however,  who  has  given  special  atten- 
tion to  the  subject,  is  sceptical  of  the  existence  of  secondary 


Fig.  49. — A  portion  of  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  hoof  where  horny  wull 
and  horny  sole  join  (about  natural 
size),  a,  laminal  sheath ;  b,  line 
of  union  ;  between  the  individual 
laminae  are  seen  spaces  which  ac- 
commodate the  horn -secreting 
papillaj ;  c,  horny  sole. 


?^       C      ^' 


«J- 


^^^&mMm 


e 

Fig.  50. — Transverse  incision  through  the  laminal  sheath,  a,  inmost  part  of  the  middle 
sheath  ;  the  horn  tubules  are  seen  to  reach  right  up  to  the  horny  lamina) ;  6,  body  of  the 
sensitive  wall;  c,  cornitied  portion  of  lamina)  connected  with  middle  sheath  of  wall ;  d , 
irregular  laminse,  which  do  not  extend  as  far  as  body  of  sensitive  wall ;  c",  non-cornified 
portion  of  rete  mucosum  ;  d,  vascular  laminaj ;  d',  vascular  laminae  which  during  de- 
velopment have  split,  thence  given  rise  to  the  irregular  horny  laniime  d ;  «,  injected 
artery. 


horny  laminae.  He  says  : — "  The  cells  formed  by  the  secondary 
sensitive  laminae  had  not  changed  to  horn,  and  consequently, 
when  a  section  of  the  horny  wall  and  laminie  is  viewed,  no 
projections  are  seen  on  the  latter."  The  relation  of  the  horny 
to  the  sensitive  laminae  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  fig.   50, 


84 


THE  PKOTECTIVE  STKUCTUKES  OF  THE  FOOT. 


which  represents  a  transverse  section  of  these  parts.  The  inner- 
most or  laminal  sheath  is  the  real  means  of  union  between  the 
horny  wall  and  sensitive  lamime,  because  the  former  is  the 
derivative  of  the  latter  and  intimately  united  to  the  middle 
layer. 

Pambach's  researches  ("  Beitrag  zur  Anat.  und  Physiol,  der 
Blattchenschicht  des  Pferdehufes,"  Dcr  Hvfschmied,  iv.,  Jahr- 
gang  1886, pp.  137  and  following)  on  twenty-four  horses  show  that 
the  average  number  of  horny  lamina3  is  554.  Fambach  states 
that  at  the  toe  fifty  lamina.'  occupy  an  average  space  of  18'5 
millimetres  ;  at  the  quarters  So  millimetres  ;  at  the  heels  29"36 
millimetres,  and  at  the  bars  38*9  millimetres.  Fambach  specially 
mentions  that  there  is  a  distinct  difference  between  fiat  hoofs 
(that  is,  such  as  form  an  angle  of  less  than  45°)  and  upright 
hoofs.  In  Hat  hoofs  the  spaces  between  the  laminae  become 
relatively  greater  towards  the  heel,  while  in  upright  hoofs  they 
remain  approximately  the  same. 

Fambach  further  found  that  the  depth  or  breadth  of  a 
horny  lamina — that  is,  the  distance  between  the  horny  wall  and 
the  free  central  margin  of  the  lamina — was  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  thickness  of  the  wall  with  which  it  was  connected.  In 
Hat  feet  the  laminae  at  the  heels  were  narrower  in  proportion 
to  the  thinness  of  the  wall.  According  to  his  measurements, 
which  were  in  each  case  made  in  the  centre  of  the  particular 
section  of  the  wall  and  perpendicular  to  the  lamime,  the  depth 
(or  breadth)  was  : — 


In  Flat  Feet. 
At  the  toe,         4  to  5    mm. 
„      quarter,  3  to  4i    „ 
„      heel,        1  to  2i 


'2      " 


lu  Upriglit  Feet. 
At  the  toe,         3^  to  4    mm 
„       quarter,  2i-  to  3i-    ,, 
„      heel,        2h  to  3      „ 


2.  The  Hoeny  Sole 
(Figs.  45  and  46,  /,  and  48,  g) 

Is  produced  by  the  sensitive  sole,  and  takes  the  form  of  a 
strong  plate,  covering  the  greater  part  of  the  under  surface  of 
the  foot.  It  consists  of  hard  horn,  which,  however,  is  not  so 
tough  as  that  of  the  wall.  After  a  time,  j)ortions  loosen  in  the 
form  of  flakes  or  plates,  and  either  break  away  by  themselves 


THE    HORNY   SOLE. 


85 


or  are  removed  in  shoeing,  so  that  the  sole  never  exhibits  the 
smoothness  of  the  wall,  but  has  a  rough,  uneven  appearance. 
The  detached  pieces  are  often  so  changed  that  they  can  readily 
be  reduced  to  a  pulverulent  mass,  nor  does  even  the  newly- 
formed  horn  close  to  the  sensitive  sole  exhibit  the  firmness  of 
the  horny  wall ;  it  can  easily  be  cut  with  a  knife,  and  permits 
of  foreign  bodies,  like  nails,  penetrating  much  more  easil}'  than 
that  of  the  wall.  The  horny  frog  and  bars  complete  the  under 
surface  of  the  foot.  They  are  inserted  into  the  triangular, 
wedge-like  space  which  the  sole  exhibits  towards  the  baclv,  and 
which  divides  it  into  an  anterior  continuous  part,  termed  the 
body  (figs.  45  and  46,  /),  and  two  posterior  parts,  separated 


ce — 


# 


Fig.  51. 


Fig. 


Fig.  51. — Vertical  trausverse  section  of  hoof  with  very  thin  sole,  a,  periople,  continued  over 
the  entire  wall  as  indicated  by  a':  b,  middle  sheath,  showing  at  b'  its  white  tint ;  c,  lami- 
nal  sheath;  (7,  union  between  laniinal  sheath  and  sole  (white  line);  e,  sole  (excessively 
trimmed) ;  /,  point  of  frog ;  </,  space  occupied  in  life  by  pedal  bone  and  vascular 
structures. 

Fig.  .'i2. — Left  lower  part  of  above  section  (natural  size),  a,  middle  sheath  :  b,  laniinal  sheath, 
continued  as  far  as  the  ground  surface  ;  c,  sole  ;  d,  yellow  soft  tubular  horn  between  wall 
and  sole,  to  be  found  also  between  the  individual  laniiiiic. 

by   this  space,  the  branches  or  wings  of  the  sole  (figs.  45  and 

46,  ./■')• 

The  sole  presents  an  upper  and  a  lower  surface,  an  anterior 

semicircular  and  a  posterior  indented  border,  as  above  noted. 

The  upper  surface  is  convex  (fig.  51,  e)  and  lies  in  contact  with 

the  sensitive  sole.      The  highest  part  is  above  the  point  of  the 

horny  frog  (/)  ;  whence  it  slopes  downwards  towards  the  wall 

both  in  front  and  at  the  sides,  rising  again,  however,  to  a  slight 

extent  in  tlie  immediate  vicinity  of  the  wall. 

.     Exactly  in  the  middle  line  of  the   toe,  where  the  sole  joins 

the  wall,  is  a  small  but  distinct  prominence  (fig.  48,  i),  which 

extends  on  to  the  wall  and  corresponds  to  the  excavation  in  the 


86 


THE  PROTECTIVE  STRUCTURES  OF  THE  FOOT. 


sensitive  wall  mentioned  on  page  72.  It  is  difficult  to  ascribe 
any  particular  purpose  to  this  prominence,  which  is  not  in- 
variably present.  The  degree  of  convexity  of  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  sole  varies  greatly  in  different  hoofs,  being,  cmteris 
paribus,  greater  in  hind  than  in  fore  feet,  while  in  diseased 
hoofs  it  may  be  entirely  suppressed  or  the  hoof  may  even  be 
concave. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  sole,  like  the  cutigeral  groove,  is 
dotted  with  small  holes,  the  openings  of  little  funnel-shaped 

canals  of  varying  size,  which 


horn -secreting 
the     sensitive 


Fig.  53. — Vertical  section  from  sole,  magnified. 
«,  funnel-shaped  openings  in  which  are  lodged 
the  horn-secreting  papillfe  of  the  sole ;  they 
vary  in  size;  6,  horny  tubules ;  c,  intermediary 
horn . 


lodge  the 
papilla'  of 
sole. 

The  under  surface  usually 
presents  a  concavity  corre- 
sponding to  the  convexity  of 
the  upper,  though  in  horses 
kept  in  the  stable  this  space 
may  be  filled  by  masses  of 
horn  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  shed.  In  a  nor- 
mal foot  the  most  marked 
concavity  is  near  the  point  of  the  frog,  whence  the  sole  falls 
towards  the  wall. 

The  outer  border  of  the  sole  is  usually  somewhat  weaker 
than  the  centre.  It  corresponds  in  shape  to  the  form  of  the 
wall,  that  is,  in  fore-feet  it  is  nearly  circular,  in  hind-feet  more 
or  less  oval,  and  is  attached  to  the  lower  portion  of  the  wall 
through  the  medium  of  the  white  line.  The  inner  triangular 
space  for  the  reception  of  the  frog  is  bordered,  not  by  the  sole, 
but  by  the  bars,  which  throughout  its  greater  extent  can  be 
differentiated  from  the  sole  by  following  the  wliite  line.  The 
anterior  part  of  this  border  is  formed  by  a  fusion  between  the 
horn  of  the  bars  and  sole  ;  to  it  is  attached  the  point  of  the 
horny  frog. 

The  white  line  (figs.  45, 46,^,  and  48,  h)  consists  of  portions  of 
the  laminal  sheath  of  the  wall,  which  by  continued  growth  are 
carried  down  and  appear  between  the  horny  sole  and  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  wall.  On  careful  examination,  the 
individual  laminae  may  be  distinguished  at  the  white  line  as 


THE  WHITE  LINE.  87 

small,  whitish,  parallel  streaks  lying  close  together.  The 
intervals  between  the  separate  horny  lamina;,  filled,  within  the 
foot,  by  the  sensitive  laminae,  are  in  the  white  line  occupied  by 
a  yellowish,  semi-transparent,  waxy  horn  (fig.  52,  d),  which  is 
softer  and  more  yielding  than  the  horn  of  the  sole.  This  horn 
is  produced  by  the  papillae,  which  are  situated  on  the  border 
between  sensitive  wall  and  sensitive  sole,  and  are  in  many 
cases  merely  the  terminations  of  sensitive  laminae. 

The  mixed  horn  of  the  white  line  is  soft,  breaks  down  more 
readily  than  that  of  the  sole,  forming  a  whitish  pulverulent 
material,  easily  distinguished  by  its  colour  from  the  horn  of 
the  wall  and  sole,  hence  the  name  "  white  line." 

The  white  line  is  of  special  importance  in  shoeing,  as  it 
indicates  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  Separation  between  the 
horny  wall  and  horny  sole  in  the  white  line  gives  rise  to  the 
condition  termed  "  loose  wall." 

Wherever  the  horny  wall  exhibits  horny  laminae,  it  must 
necessarily  show  the  "  white  line."  On  close  examination  it 
will  be  found  that  the  white  line  does  not  cease  at  the  angle 
of  the  bars,  but  that  it  is  reflected,  precisely  like  the  horny 
wall,  and  runs  forwards  and  inwards,  at  an  angle,  towards  its 
fellow,  dividing  the  sole  from  the  bars  for  about  half  the 
length  of  the  frog  (figs.  45  and  46,  g).  It  is  certainly  not  so 
apparent  here  as  at  the  circumference  of  the  sole,  but  this 
is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  corresponding  portion  of  the 
laminal  sheath  is  slender,  and  has  thinner  and  fewer  horny 
laminae  than  the  other  parts  :  also,  and  principally,  because 
the  bars  grow  obliquely  outwards  and  downwards,  and,  there- 
fore, tend  to  cover  these  parts  of  the  white  line.  In  order 
to  see  the  white  line  at  this  point,  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  bar  must  be  removed.  In  front  of  the  anterior  third  of 
the  frog  it  is  no  longer  visible,  the  bars  and  sole  here  being 
united. 


88 


THE   PEOTECTIVE   STRUCTURES   OF   THE   FOOT. 


3.  The  Horny  Frog. 
'  (Figs.  35,  45,  46,  48,  54,  and  55.) 

The  horny  frog  exhibits,  in  general,  the  form  of  the  plantar 
cushion,  or  more  precisely  the  sensitive  frog  on  which  it  is 
moulded.  Considered  as  a  whole,  it  resembles  a  four-sided 
pyramid  lying  on  one  face,  and  thrust  like  a  wedge  into  the 
triangular  space  l:)Ounded  by  the  bars  and  sole  at  the  back  of 
the  under  surface  of  the  hoof.      The  horn  of  the  frog  is  soft, 

resembling  that  of  the  periople, 
is  very  elastic,  and  has  been 
compared  with  india-rubber. 
In  spite  of  its  softness  and  the 
readiness  with  which  it  may 
be  cut,  it  possesses  considerable 
tenacity,  and  does  not  break 
like  that  of  the  sole,  but  tears 
away  in  shreds  or  larger  masses. 
The  horny  frog  presents  four 

Fig.  54.— Horny  frog  removed  from  hoof,  to-  SUrfaCCS  and  tWO  extrCmitlCS. 
getherwith  the  periople  and  the  expansion  rni  ,,^,~.p,,  qnrfqpp  whiVh  onlv 
of  tlie  latter  wliich  covers  tlie  wall,    o,  de-    J-UC  UppCl     bUliace,    WniGU    Oni} 

pression  divided  into  two  by  6,  the  frog-    ljpp^i^-,pc.  vim'hlp  nffp7-  VPninval  of 
stay  ;  c,  portion  of  the  horny  frog  which    'Jecomes  Vlbl  UlC  til  LCI  IcmoVcii  UL 

unites  with  the  bars;  d,  portion  of  frog    ^i  hnnf      ic:     an     a^r-Aof     ihmicrh 

which  above  is  in  contact  with  the  bar,  but    ^^^^     nOOI,     LS     dU     eXdCL     lUOUgll 

below,  at  (f,  appears  as  a  free  surface  ;e,    ^pvprsipd      VPl^vnflllPt.inTl       of     the 
point  of  frog:  /,  periople;  /,  perioplic    iCVeibCU      ILpiUUUCblOIl       Ui      LlltJ 

sheath  of  wall.  plantar    cushion,    to    which    it 

stands  in  the  same  relation  as  does  an  impression  to  the  seal 
producing  it.  It,  therefore,  resembles  an  elongated,  triangular, 
ilattish  furrow  (figs.  54,  a,  and  48,  m),  bounded  by  two  lateral 
surfaces  running  obliquely  downwards  and  towards  the  middle 
line  (figs.  54,  c,  and  48,  k),  the  whole  fitting  into  the  space 
between  the  bars.  At  the  back  of  this  depression  and  in  the 
centre  line  rises  a  well-marked  prominence,  overtopping,  more 
or  less,  the  upper  margins  of  the  bars,  and  dividing  the  depres- 
sion into  two  equal  parts  (fig.  48,  m).  It  is  called  the  frog-stay 
(figs.  35,  hy  48,  /,  and  54,  h),  and  exactly  corresponds  with  the 
depression  on  the  under  surface  of  the  plantar  cushion  into 
which  it  fits. 

The  two  lateral  surfaces  of  the  frog-stay  run  obliquely  down- 
wards and  outwards,  and  the  part  is,  therefore,  thicker  below 


.'    / 


THE   HOKNY   FKOG    AND   BULBS.  89 

than  above.  Behind,  its  upper  border  is  comparatively  sharp 
^nd  straight,  but  as  it  advances  and  descends  becomes  flattened, 
at  length  being  lost  at  the  bottom  of  the  depression. 

As  the  periople,  with  its  posterior  expansion,  the  horny  bulbs, 
is  united  at  either  side  with  the  frog-stay,  and  extends  upwards 
into  the  cleft  of  the  frog,  it  forms  at  the  back  of  the  hoof  two 
shallow  basin-like  concavities,  occupied  by  the  rounded  extremi- 
ties of  the  plantar  cushion  (compare  with  horny  bulbs,  page  79). 

The  entire  upper  surface  of    the   horny  frog  is  permeated 
with  small  openings   for  the   reception  of    the  papillae  which 
secrete  the  horn  of  the  froc?.      The  under  surface  of  the  hornv 
frog  (figs.  45  and  46),  which 
in  the  normal  condition  lies 
in  the  same  plane  with  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  wall, 
is     broadest      behind     and 
draws  to  a  point  in   front. 
At  its  posterior  part,  corre- 
spondincr    to    the   frog-stay 

^  .  .  Fig.  55.— Vertical  mesial  section  of  horny  frog.    a. 

above,    is    a    depression,    the        npper  surface;  ft,  frog-stay,  (■,cleft  of  frog,  show- 

ing  at  c' overlapping  layers  of  horn. 

lurrow  or  median  lacuna  of 

the  frog  (figs.  45,  46,  and  55,  c).  The  portions  of  the  frog, 
bounding  tliis  furrow  on  either  side,  are  termed  its  limbs  (i). 
The  upper  portions  of  the  lateral  surfaces  (fig.  54,  d)  are  united 
with  the  upper  and  inner  surface  of  the  bars  and  with  the  sole 
{compare  with  fig.  47,  ci),  the  lower  portions  are  free,  and,  aided 
by  the  corresponding  inner  surface  of  the  bar,  enclose  a  furrow 
termed  the  lateral  furrow  or  lateral  lacuna  of  the  frog  (figs.  45 
and  46,  m). 

As  the  horn  of  the  frog  grows  obliquely  downwards  and 
forwards,  the  antero-inferior  extremity  reaches  further  forward 
than  the  antero-superior  (figs.  54,  c,  and'55).  The  posterior  end 
•or  base  of  the  frog  is  its  broadest  part.  It  is  formed  by  the 
limbs  of  the  frog,  which  here  unite  with  the  horny  bulbs  (figs.  45 
■and  46,  Ick).  At  this  point  also  the  well-marked  perioplic  horn 
-covering  the  heel- wall  becomes  continuous  with  the  horny  frog. 


SEOTIOISi    II. 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  FOOT. 


A  KNOWLEDGE  of  the  structure  of  its  separate  parts  is  the  key 
to  that  of  the  functions  of  the  foot  as  a  whole.  Only  those 
who  have  acquainted  themselves  with  the  anatomy  of  the 
foot  can  thoroughly  understand  its  action.  In  many  parts  of 
the  foot  the  function  is  immediately  apparent  from  a  study  of 
the  formation,  but  in  others  close  and  careful  consideration  is 
required.  Thus  it  is  at  once  apparent,  on  examining  the  bones 
of  the  foot  (fig.  11),  or  a  longitudinal  section  (fig.  10),  that  the 
bones  form  the  basis  for  the  attachment  of  other  parts,  and 
may  be  regarded  as  the  framework  of  the  machine.  The 
relations  of  the  bones,  the  connection  of  these  by  ligaments, 
the  form  of  contact  of  the  surfaces,  their  smoothness,  and  the 
presence  of  lubricating  material  between  them,  allow  the  bones 
to  move  to  and  fro  in  certain  definite  directions  with  great 
ease.  Again,  the  resiliency  of  the  articular  cartilages  of  the 
bones,  the  presence  of  several  bones  in  one  joint,  their  liga- 
mentous attachments,  and  the  angles  which  the  joints  form 
with  one  another,  not  only  admit  of  extensive  movements  in 
certain  planes,  but  of  movements  between  the  bones  themselves, 
which  in  a  great  measure  nullify  the  effects  of  sudden  shocks. 
The  elasticity  of  the  plantar  cushion  and  of  the  lateral  carti- 
lages is  of  even  greater  importance.  The  part  played  by  these 
structures  and  by  the  limb  itself  in  neutralising  concussion 
will  be  considered  later. 

The  functions  of  the  muscles,  blood-vessels,  and  nerves  are 
less  striking  on  mere  anatomical  examination. 

90 


FUNCTIONS  OF  TENDONS,   BLOOD-VESSELS,  AND   NERVES.         91 

The  bones  and  ligaments  are  set  in  movement  by  the 
contraction  of  muscles ;  and,  though  not  with  invariable 
certainty,  the  result  of  such  contraction  may  largely  be  deter- 
mined by  studying  the  position  of  the  muscles  themselves,  and 
the  points  at  which  their  tendons  are  inserted.  Owing  to  the 
position  of  the  muscles,  much  can  be  learnt  of  their  functions 
by  studying  living  animals.  We  see,  for  instance,  during 
movement,  a  constant  change  of  form  in  the  more  superficial 
muscles.  Sometimes  the  muscle  becomes  more,  sometimes  less 
prominent.  Each  change  is  followed  by  movement  of  the 
bones.  As  we  see  the  bones  of  the  foot  move,  though  we  are 
aware  this  region  possesses  no  muscles,  it  is  easy  to  deduce 
that  such  movement  depends  on  muscular  force  developed  in 
other  parts  and  transmitted  by  the  tendons.  The  justness  of 
the  conclusion  is  verified  when  muscles  or  tendons  are  injured. 
Movement  in  the  affected  parts  is  then  limited  or  altogether 
inhibited,  just  as  in  ourselves  the  hand  and  fingers  become 
stiff  after  severe  injuries  of  the  muscles  or  tendons  of  the 
fore-arm. 

The  parts  played  by  the  blood-vessels  and  nerves  are,  at 
first  sight,  obscure,  and  for  many  centuries  remained  unrecog- 
nised. For  our  purpose  it  is  quite  sufficient  to  know  that  the 
arteries  carry  bright  red  blood,  the  nutritive  fiuid  of  the  body, 
to  every  part ;  that  this  supplies  nourishment  to  the  tissues, 
that  from  it  are  elaborated  the  secretions,  and  that  the  veins 
again  carry  it  off  when  exhausted.  The  return  of  blood  from 
the  extensive  venous  net-works  of  the  foot  is  greatly  assisted 
by  the  peculiar  mechanical  formation  and  the  large  amount  of 
elastic  tissue  within  the  hoof. 

Similarly,  it  is  sufficient  to  know  that  the  work  of  the 
nerves  is  to  control  movement  and  secretion,  to  convey  im- 
pulses recognised  by  the  brain  as  sensation,  and  to  preside  over 
nutritive  processes  in  particular  organs.  The  nerves  may  be 
likened  to  telegraph  wires.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  certain 
movement  is  contemplated  ;  at  the  right  moment  the  muscles 
involved  are  made  aware,  through  the  nerves,  of  the  amount 
of  contraction  required  of  them,  information  which  is  immedi- 
ately followed  by  the  execution  of  the  movement.  Wherever 
a  sensitive  part,  that  is,  one  containing  nerves,  is  touched  or 
injured,  the  brain   or   spinal  cord   receives   an  impression   of 


92  THE   FUNCTIONS   OF   THE   FOOT. 

what  has  occurred.  Should  a  nerve  be  cut  through,  the  part 
supplied  by  it  is  deprived  of  sensation  and  motion,  and  nutritive 
processes  are  no  longer  carried  on  in  a  well-ordered  and  normal 
fashion.  In  prolonged,  painful  diseases  of  the  foot,  section  of 
the  (digital)  nerves  is  sometimes  practised ;  but  though  this 
may  render  the  animal  sound  for  a  time,  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  nerves  are  concerned  in  other  functions  than 
that  of  common  sensation,  and  that  neurectomy  is  often 
followed  by   unfavourable  results. 


CHAPTER   1. 


HISTOLOGY  OF  HORN, 


By  studying  a  hoof  which  has  recently  been  removed  and 
carefully  cleansed,  we  see  that  the  wall  presents  a  fine  vertical 
striation  in  addition  to  the  longitudinal  ring  formation  already 
referred  to.     This  striation  is  also  apparent  on  the  surface  of 


Fig.  56. — Pei'peiuliculav  section  from  horn  of  wall  (magnified) .  The  pai'allel  dark  striaj  are 
horn  tubes ;  the  lighter  intervening  portions  represent  inter-tubular  horn.  The  por- 
tion from  a-b  represents  the  outer  (dark-coloured)  portion  of  the  wall ;  b-c,  the  inner 
(whitish)  portion  of  wall ;  c-d,  margin  between  protective  sheath  and  horn  laminte  ; 
d-e,  horn  laminic.  At /are  seen  splits  in  the  laminre,  running  in  an  oblique  upward 
direction. 


vertical  sections  through  any  portion  of  the  wall ;  it  usually 
appears  best  marked  in  the  inner  third  of  the  thickness  of  the 
wall,  that  is,  in  the  portion  nearest  the  laminal  sheath,  which 
even  in  dark  hoofs  appears  light  coloured.  By  removing  a 
thin  slice  of  the  dirty  or  burnt  horn  from  the  ground  surface 
of  the  wall,  a  number  of  small,  closely  packed  points  will 
be  seen,  somewhat  resembling  the  little  openings  which  we 
have  already  studied  in  the  cutigeral  groove.  Little  more 
than  this  can  be  seen,  and  therefore,  in  studying  the  finer 
structure  of  the  wall,  we  have  recourse  to  thin  sections 
and  high  magnification.  By  making  a  thin  section  in  the 
direction   of    the    striation    noted,  selecting    either   the  outer 

93 


94  HISTOLOGY   OF   HORN. 

surface  of  the  wall,  or  still  better,  the  vertical  section  already 
mentioned,  and  examining  this  under  a  magnification  of  25  to 
50  diameters,  we  find  a  number  of  straight  striae  of  varying 
thickness,  and  usually  dark  in  colour,  lying  parallel  with  one 
another  and  connected  by  a  more  transparent  and  lighter 
coloured  material. 

Taking  a  fine  section  at   right  angles  to  the  stria tion  we 

shall,  first,  be  able  to  detect  with  the  naked  eye  the  same 

punctated    appearance    already   recognised   in    the    transverse 

e  er  section   from   the    bearing   surface    of 

Wwh^W:^^^^tM^^       t:he  wall.      By  holding  the  section  up 

■i''^'  Wvtf'^M^?^^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^'^^  many  of  the  points  appear 

ti^?\^^('  A^^'^3>f1^>^^0'i        to  be  mere  minute  holes — a  conclusion 

m\%^^^^  confirmed  by  the  microscope  (compare 

te-i^:SS^%^'^.Sll^^'^^  /    ^§-  ^'^)-     Under  a  low  power  the  sec- 
fc^lk''^^  ?^/^'*S'      tion   shows  a  number  of  rounded   or 

oval    holes   (a)   surrounded    by  dark, 
crossed    lines,  which    again    are   em- 
'tSoIs"?S£'on,onriS'i  bedded   in   a    lighter   coloured   mate- 

i,  iiiter-tubular  horn.     The  dark    y\.{\   ('k\ 

specks  seen  in  the  section  repre-  \^/* 

sent  masses  of  pigment.  rpj^^  j^^j^^  ^^^  _^  ^^^^^  ^^^.j,  SUrrOUud- 

ing  tissue  correspond  in  position  to  the  parallel  dark  striae 
found  in  longitudinal  sections,  hence  we  conclude  the  striae  of 
the  wall  are  hollow  tubes,  which,  however,  are  not  always  empty 
but  often  contain  loosely  packed  cells  or  broken-down  cell  pro- 
ducts. They  are,  in  fact,  horn  tubes,  a  more  correct  term  than 
that  of  horn  fibres,  which  has  also  been  given  them.  The 
lighter  horny  material  surrounding  them  has  been  termed  inter- 
tubular  or  connective  horn. 

Examination  of  the  sole  and  soft  horn  of  the  fro^-  or 
periople  shows  an  almost  exactly  similar  appearance.  The 
lower  surface  of  the  sole,  like  the  upper,  exhibits  minute 
openings.  On  section  in  an  antero-posterior  direction,  stria 
are  seen  running  obliquely  from  above  downwards  and  forwards, 
the  microscopical  examination  of  which  shows  them  also  to  be 
horny  tubes,  though  they  differ  from  those  of  the  middle  sheath 
of  the  wall  in  their  greater  breadth  and  more  oblique  direction. 
Sections  of  fresh,  soft  horn  (like  that  of  the  frog)  exhibit  very 
fine  striae,  which  usually  take  a  somewhat  wavy  course.  When, 
however,  soft  horn  is  allowed  to  soak  in  water  for  some  time 


STRUCTURE   OF  WALL,   WHITE  LINE,  AND  SOLE. 


95 


striae  appear  as  thicker,  thread-like  lines,  and  are  then  very 
distinct. 

By  making  a  horizontal  section,  embracing  portions  of  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  wall,  of  the  white  line  and  of  the  sole 
(fig.  58),  we  see  that  the  spaces  between  the  individual  horny 
laminae  are  not  filled  by  connective  horn  alone,  but  that  a 
number  of  horn  tubes  are  included.  The  horny  laminae  possess 
no  horn  tubes.  Their  surfaces  show  slight  striai  and  small 
secondary  laminae  or  lamellae,  more  or  less  vertical  (fig.  56,  d  and 
e),  resembling  those  of  the  sensitive  laminae  abeady  described 
at  p.  71.  Transverse  sections  of  the  horny  laminie  show  these 
secondary  laminae  as  small  radiating  prominences  (fig.  66,  d), 
which  are  to  be  found  both  in  old  and  young  hoofs.      The  horn 


Fig.  58. — Horizontal  section  through  a  part  of  the  wall,  the  white  line  and  the  sole,  a,  horn 
wall ;  b,  horn  laminae.  The  horn  surrounding  the  laniina;  contains  horn  tubes  c,  cut 
through  obliquely  ;  d,  horn  sole. 


of  the  hoof,  therefore,  with  the  exception  of  the  horny  laminae, 
consists  of  innumerable  distinct,  parallel,  closely -packed  horn 
tubes,  running  obliquely  downwards  and  forwards,  and  sur- 
rounded by  an  inter-tubular  horn  which  cements  them  firmly 
together. 

We  may  next  go  a  step  further,  and  seek  to  discover  the 
nature  and  mutual  relations  of  the  horn  tubes  and  of  the  inter- 
tubular  horn  which  connects  them.  The  moderate  amplifica- 
tion which  revealed  the  tubular  structure  of  the  hoof  is  now 
insufficient.  Powers  of  200  to  300  diameters  are  required, 
and  the  examination  will  be  found  to  present  peculiar  difficulties. 
To  facilitate  cutting  we  must  employ  horn  which  has  been  long 
macerated,  or,  if  possible,  parts  from  young  animals,  and  some- 


96 


HISTOLOGY    OF   HORN. 


times  subject  the  horn  to  solutions  which  soften  its  structure  and 
make  clearer  its  finer  characteristics ;  the  most  useful  is  caustic 
potash  or  soda. 

Taking  some  dead,  almost  powdery,  horn  from  the  sole,  or  a 
little  of  the  white  cheesy  material  from  the  cleft  of  the  frog, 
we  place  it  on  a  slide,  add  a  little  clean  water,  and  dropping 
over  it  a  cover-glass,  subject  the  specimen  to  moderate  pressure. 
Under  the  microscope  such  a  preparation  shows  only  a  number 
of  cells  resembling  those  of  the  epidermis  described  on  p.  61. 
These  are  horn  cells. 

By   making   a  second   preparation  with  some  of  the  slimy 


Fig.  59. — rt,  horn  cells  from  wall  ;  6>, 
isolated  horn  tube  from  the  wall  of 
a  new-born  foal's  foot  (has  been 
treated  with  caustic  potash). 


Fig.  6U. — Horn  cells  from  the  sole. 
a,  young  cells  from  the  surface 
of  the  sole  ;  b,  cells  from  horn 
which  has  been  cast 


material  always  to  be  found  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  sole, 
frog,  etc.,  after  removal  of  the  hoof  (especially  when  the  hoof 
has  undergone  prolonged  maceration),  we  see  nothing  but 
thousands  of  horn  cells,  though  in  this  case  they  are  younger 
than  in  the  former.  Of  horn  tubes  and  inter-tubular  horn  we 
see  absolutely  nothing  in  either  case. 

We  may  next  take  a  minute  particle  of  dead  horn  from  the 
sole,  or  loosen  a  fragment  of  the  striated  soft  horn  from  a 
macerated  foot,  and  examine  it  microscopically  after  the  addition 
of  a  little  caustic  potash.     We  shall  then  see  clearly  both  horn 


CELLULAR   CONSTITUENTS   OF   HOEN. 


97 


tubes  and  inter- tubular  horn.  The  horn  tubes  are  formed,  like 
the  inter-tubular  horn,  from  single  cells  (compare  figs.  62,  c,  64, 
and  65).  By  pressing  on  the  cover-glass,  cells  may  be  detached 
from  the  horn  tubes  and  are  then  difficult  to  distinguish  from 
those  forming  the  inter- tubular  horn. 

The  same  appearance  is  presented  by  the  horn  of  the 
middle  sheath  of  the  wall  (fig.  59,  h),  though  in  this  case 
examination  is  more  difficult,  and  seldom  succeeds  without 
the  use  of  some  caustic  fiuid.      Leisering  has,  however,  made 


Fig.  61.— Horn  cells  from  the 
perioplic  ring,  a,  young  ; 
b,  older  cells. 


Fig.  62. — Horn  cells  from  the  frog. 
a,  young ;  b,  older  cells ;  c,  iso- 
lated horn  tube. 


good  preparations  from  macerated  young  hoofs.  The  horn 
tubes  which  project  above  the  bearing  surface  of  the  wall 
in  new-born  foals,  after  the  removal  of  'the  cap  which  covers 
the  toe  until  birth,  are  useful  for  such  demonstrations.  The 
horny  laminee,  as  we  have  seen,  contain  no  tubes,  but  may 
be  divided  in  a  similar  way  into  single  horny  cells.  In 
their  case  it  is  not  so  essential  to  add  an  alkali.  From  the 
results,  then,  of  microscopical  examination  it  may  be  concluded 
that  the  horny  cells  are  the  elements  from  which  the  horn  is 
built  up. 

The  horn  tubes,  the  inter-tubular  horn  connecting  them,  and 

G 


98 


HISTOLOGY   OF   HOKN. 


the   horny    lamina   all    consist  of   cells,   which    are   variously 
described   as   tubular,   and    inter- tubular    or    connective    cells. 

Leisering  states  that,  in  general^  the 
cells  of  the  soft  horn  and  of  the  sole 
are  larger  than  those  of  the  wall. 
The  cells  of  the  horny  laminse  are 
longer  and  less  thick  than  those  of 
other  portions  of  the  hoof.  Young, 
imperfectly  cornified  cells  lying  close 
to  their  point  of  formation  (papillae, 
sensitive  laminse)  are  rounded,  soft, 
and  soon  disappear  after  the  addition 
of  caustic  potash  solution ;  they  are, 
therefore,  better  studied  in  dilute 
*?reSTSu%'Sner,,';Wug  "oetic  acid,  which  destroys  them  less 

sensitive  wall ;  b,  older  cells  from    rqi-)iHl y 
a  fragment  of  horn  lamina  (treated       '^1         J  ' 

with  caustic  potash).  Lciseriug  believes  that  the  cells  of 

the  horn  tubes  lie  with  their  greatest  length  in  the  direction  of 
the  tube  ;  the  inter-tubular  cells,  however,  at  right  angles  to  the 

tube.  The  tubular 
and  connecting  cells, 
therefore,  cross  more 
or  less  in  direction. 
This  is  well  shown  in 
sections  of  the  soft 
horn  of  the  frog,  where 
the  cells  cross  almost 
at  right  angles  (fig. 
65).  Leisering  has  ob- 
served the  same  fact 

Fig.  64.— Horizontal  section  of  a  fragment  of  cast  horn  lU  tllC    middle    shcath 

from  sole.    The  horn  tubes  a,  like  the  inter-tubular  horn  p  ,i              it                  •    -ii 

b,  are  seen  to  consist  of  cells.     At  c  some  of  the  horn  01  tUe  Wall,  especially 

tubes  have  been  torn  away.  •                       i,       i:           j    • 

m  young  hoots  and  m 
such  as  have  been  long  macerated.  In  the  sole  the  formation 
is  somewhat  different.  The  tubular  cells  there  lie  with  their 
greatest  length  more  nearly  transverse  to  the  direction  of  the 
tube.  Perhaps  this  position  of  the  cells  and  the  less  intimate 
connection  which  exists  between  them  throughout  the  sole 
explain  the  flaking  of  the  sole  during  work.  The  cells  of  the 
horny  laminae  always  lie  with  their  greatest  length  across  the 


CHEMICAL   CONSTITUTION   OF   HORN. 


99 


lamina,  in  a  somewhat  oblique  direction  from  fixed  border  to 
free  edge,  or  downwards  and  inwards.  The  tendency  of  the 
homy  laminae  always  to  tear  in  this  direction  appears  due  to 
the  arrangement  of  their  cells  (tig.  56,  /). 

The  exceedingly  fine  particles  of  brownish,  blackish,  or  deep 
black    material  which    the    microscope    always    shows  to    be 
present  in  greater  or  less   amount  between   the    cells  of  the 
tubes   and   inter-tubular    horn 
is    pigment.      As  its  presence 
interferes  greatly   with    micro- 
scopical examination,  it  is  best 
to  employ  uncoloured  hoofs. 

.  This  pigment  appears  to  serve 
no  particular  purpose  in  the 
construction  of  the  hoof,  the 
colour  of  which  varies  from 
white,  yellow,  or  grey  to  a  deep 

black    aCCOrdincr  to  the    amount  fig.  65. -Pei-pendiculai- section  of  horn  frog. 

.                      ,                                       .  a,  horn  tubes;  6,  cells  of  the  inter-tubular 

of    piSfmentatlOn.        As    the    pier-  horn,  which  are  seen  to  run  at  right  angles 

^  ^.                                                     5  to  the  horn  tubes. 

ment  is  produced  by  the  corium, 

striped  hoofs  are  due  to  absence  of  pigment-forming  cells  in 
certain  recjions  of  the  coronet.  It  is  said  that  dark  hoofs  are 
stronger  than  light,  but  this  requires  confirmation. 

The  contents  of  the  horn  tubes  consist  of  loosely  packed, 
incompletely  cornified  cells,  with  broken  -  down  material. 
Sometimes  traces  of  blood  are  found  in  the  tubes,  especially 
after  severe  bruises  of  the  corresponding  horn-secreting  parts. 

A  very  few  lines  on  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of 
the  horn  must  suffice.  The  horn  forming  the  hoof,  when  fresh 
or  after  soaking  in  water,  is  fairly  elastic  ;  but  after  drying  it 
loses  this  property.  It  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  and  there- 
fore protects  the  parts  it  covers  from  freezing  in  winter 
weather  and  from  burning  during  the  fitting  of  a  hot  shoe. 
Burning  horn  produces  a  thick  smoke,  which  has  a  character- 
istic smell  resembling  that  of  burning  feathers.  Acetic  acid 
acts  least,  nitric  acid  most  on  horn,  the  latter  turning  it  soft 
and  yellow  ;  sulphuric  acid  produces  its  effect  slowly  and 
renders  the  cells  more  distinct.  Caustic  alkalis  (soda  and 
potash)  dissolve  the  inter-cellular  substance  and  break  up  the 
horn    into    its    component    cells.       Ammonia    acts    similarly : 


100 


HISTOLOGY   OF   HORN. 


hence  it  mast  be  injurious  to  the  feet  to  be  continually  in 
contact  with  manure  which  contains  considerable  quantities  of 
this  alkali.  According  to  Mulder  the  elements  of  the  horse's 
hoof  are:  —  Carbon,  51-41;  hydrogen,  6"96  ;  nitrogen,  17'46  ; 
oxygen,  19*94  ;  sulphur,  4*23. 

Clement's  analysis  is  as  follows  : — 


Wall 

Sole. 

Frog. 

Water, 

1612 

36-00 

42-00 

Fatty  rnateiial,       .... 

0-95 

0-25 

0-50 

Material  soluble  in  water, 

1  04 

1-r.o 

1-50 

Insoluble  salts,       .... 

0-26 

0-25 

0-22 

Animal  matters,      .... 

81-63 

62-00 
100-00 

55-78 
100-00 

100-00 

Lungwitz  found  by  experiment  that  fresh,  healthy  horn  from 
the  frog  contained  about  40  per  cent,  of  water.  In  the  case  of 
perioplic  horn,  however,  this  figure  rises  to  50.  The  excess  of 
water  in  the  perioplic  horn  explains  its  greater  softness  and 
flexibility.  Fat  is  also  present  in  small  quantities  in  the  horn, 
being  formed  by  fatty  degeneration  of  the  loose  cells  contained 
in  the  horn  tubes.  In  the  soft  horn  structures  of  newly-born 
animals  the  quantity  of  fat  is  sometimes  so  considerable  that 
little  drops  of  it  may  be  seen  under  the  microscope. 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  HOOF. 

MoLLER  distinguishes  three  periods  in  the  development  of  the 
hoof: — (1)  The  period  of  general  epidermal  formation ;  (2)  The 
period  of  the  provisional  hoof ;  and  (3)  The  period  of  the  hoof 
proper. 

The  period  of  general  epidermal  formation  comprises 
the  first  two  months  of  uterine  life,  during  which  one  can 
only  distinguish  at  the  extremity  of  the  limb  a  slight 
thickening  of  the  epidermis,  marking  the  position  of  the  future 
hoof. 

The  second  period  extends  over  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth  months  of  foetal  life,  during  which  are  formed  the 
coronary  band  and  the  remainder  of  the  keratogenous  or  horn- 
secretincr  membrane.  At  the  seventh  month  the  wall  itself 
appears  distinctly,  then  the  sole  and  frog,  whicli  are  completely 
developed  soon  after  birth. 

The  third  period  is  characterised  by  the  greater  hardness  of 
the  horn.  Development  takes  place  from  the  region  of  the  toe 
towards  that  of  the  heels.  During  the  latter  half  of  gestation 
the  hoof  begins  to  assume  the  appearance  of  ordinary  horn,  the 
chans^e  conimenciii£^  at  the  coronet. 

At  birth  the  hoof  is  conical  in  shape ;  its  horn  soft  and 
elastic.  The  frog  is  greatly  developed  -and  the  sole  is  not  yet 
apparent.  It  is  only  towards  the  fifteenth  to  eighteenth  month 
that  the  hoof  assumes  its  final  form.  At  first  like  a  truncated 
cone  with  its  base  above,  it  gradually  assumes  a  cylindrical 
form,  finally  changing  once  more  to  the  conical  shape,  but 
with  the  base  below.  Tlie  heels,  formerly  very  oblique, 
become  parallel  to  the  toe,  and  the  sole  develops  a  marked 
concavity. 

An  examination  of  the  feet  of  a  fuUv  srown  but  unshod 

101 


102  THE   GKOWTH    OF   THE   HOOF. 

horse  which  has  been  employed  in  field  work,  and  has  not  been 
much  on  hard  roads,  will  show  that  they  are  of  the  same  size  and 
length.  If  the  hoof  be  marked  with  a  rasp  or  file,  it  will  be 
found,  after  some  time,  that  the  mark  is  receding  from  the 
coronary  border  and  approaching  the  ground ;  in  a  word,  it  is 
"  growing  "  downwards.  If,  however,  the  horse  is  not  working 
(or  is  shod)  its  hoofs  will  become  longer. 

Both  appearances — the  recession  of  the  mark  and  the  elonga- 
tion of  the  hoofs — show  tliat  the  latter  grow  from  above  down- 
ward, just  as  do  our  nails  and  hair.  The  explanation,  however, 
why  the  unshod  hoof  of  a  horse  working  on  the  land  remains 
the  same  length  and  the  shod  hoof  increases,  is  to  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  in  the  first  instance  as  much  horn  is  worn  away 
from  the  bearing  surface  as  is  produced  above,  whilst  in  the 
other,  wear  is  prevented  by  the  protection  afforded  by  shoes  or 
by  the  absence  of  movement. 

Growth  seems  to  be  regular,  at  least  in  the  wall.  Hartmann, 
who  made  numerous  experiments  to  discover  w^hether  the  toe 
grew  faster  than  the  (quarters  or  heel,  always  found  that  the 
fine  transverse  incisions,  which  he  made  at  similar  distances 
from  the  coronary  border  (though  at  different  points  of  the 
circumference  of  the  foot),  preserved  an  equal  distance  from  the 
coronary  border  during  their  passage  downwards,  so  that  he 
concluded  growth  was  equal  at  all  points  in  the  wall.  It 
being  so  difficult  to  study  the  growth  of  horn  in  the  sole  and 
frog,  it  is  at  present  not  possible  to  say  whether  it  takes 
place  there  more  rapidly  than  in  the  wall.  Hartmann  says 
the  frog  grows  most  rapidly  when  the  animals  are  kept  hard 
at  work,  though  only  then  if  the  part  comes  in  contact  with 
the  ground. 

Grohn  ascertained  negatively  the  influence  exerted  by  nerve 
supply  upon  the  growth  of  the  hoof,  and  found  that  when  the 
digital  nerves  of  one  leg  were  divided,  the  wall  of  the  corre- 
sponding foot  grew  more  rapidly  than  that  of  its  fellow.  The 
time  required  for  the  horn  to  grow  from  the  coronary  border 
to  the  ground  edge  of  the  wall  varies  greatly,  being  from 
eight  to  sixteen  months  at  the  toe,  six  to  ten  months  at 
the  quarters,  and  four  to  six  months  at  the  heel.  The  length 
(or  height)  of  the  wall  and  the  angle  it  makes  with  the 
ground  must,  of  course,  be   taken   into   consideration.      If  we 


RATE   OF  GROWTH.  103 

regard  the  average  growth  as  8  millimetres  (^^  inch)  per 
month,  the  length  of  time  required  for  complete  renewal  of 
the  hoof  at  any  point  is  easily  reckoned.  But,  as  before  stated, 
the  rate  of  growth  is  not  always  the  same.  Luncrwitz  studied 
this  question  somewhat  closely  and  formulated  his  results  as 
follows : — 

1.  The  growth  of  the  horny  wall  is  slow  and  averages  about 
8  millimetres  (t%  inch)  per  month.  2.  Unshod  hoofs  grow  more 
rapidly  than  those  shod.  3.  Hind  hoofs  grow  more  rapidly 
than  fore.  4.  The  wall  grows  slower  in  stallions  than  in  other 
horses.  5.  Growth  takes  place  to  an  equal  extent  round  the 
entire  hoof.  6.  There  is  no  connection  between  the  colour  and 
rapidity  of  growth  of  the  hoof. 

Growth  is  favoured  by  the  horse  going  barefooted.  The 
following  case  is  given  in  the  Hufschmied,  v.  p.  38 : — 

A  horse,  the  normal  growth  of  whose  front  hoofs  was  3 
millimetres  monthly,  was  sent  to  grass  without  shoes  for  three 
months.  A  light  cantharides  blister  was  applied  around  the 
coronet.  During  this  period  the  growth  rose  to  8*9  millimetres 
per  montli. 

In  horses  which  are  shod,  growth  is  favoured  by  free  move- 
ment on  moderately  soft  ground,  by  careful  shoeing  which 
provides  for  the  expansion  of  the  foot,  by  regularly  shorten- 
ing the  wall,  by  nourishing  diet,  normal  state  of  health,  and  by 
all  factors  which  increase  local  circulation.  Growth  is  retarded 
by  want  of  movement,  ill  health,  low  condition,  exercise  on  hot 
sand  or  on  stones,  drought,  excessive  length  of  the  hoof,  unequal 
distribution  of  wei2;ht  in  the  two  limbs,  and  by  continued 
standing  on  one  foot. 

Wear  depends  to  some  extent  on  the  pace.  Thus  at  a  full 
gallop  or  fast  trot  the  heels  seem  to  wear  most,  at  a  walk  or 
slow  trot  the  toe.  That  is  to  say,  that  at  a  fast  pace  the  foot  is 
brought  liat  to  the  ground  or  even  with  the  heel  first,  but  at  a 
walk  the  toe  strikes  the  ground  first.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  draught  horses  usually  wear  the  outer  quarter  more  than 
the  inner. 

The  question  of  how  the  hoof  grows  cannot  well  be  answered 
by  direct  inspection  of  the  parts,  and  requires  a  careful  study 
of  the  formation  of  the  specialised  corium,  which  produces  the 
horn,  of  the  microscopic  appearances  of  the  horn  itself,  and  of 


104  THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  HOOF. 

the  processes  of  renewal  wliich  are  always  going   on    in    the 
hoof-forming   tissues.       On    page   62   it   was  shown   that   the 
surface   of    the   corium    is    continually   secreting    cells    which 
form   the   epidermis,  that   the   older  of   these  are  compressed 
by  the    younger    and    last-formed,  in    consequence   of    which 
they   become   flatter    and    drier,   take   on   a   horny    character, 
and  finally  are  thrust  off*.      The   growth  of  the  hoof  is  very 
similar.      Like  the  epidermis,  the  hoof  consists  of  cells  secreted 
by    the    specialised     corium,   and    gradually    compressed    and 
dried  into  a  solid  adherent  mass   corresponding  to  the  more 
superficial   epidermal    layers.      Nevertheless,   the    arrangement 
and    forward    growth    of    the    horn    cells    difl'er    essentially 
from   those   of   the   epidermis.       As    the   hoof   corium,  which 
produces   horn  cells,  is  not  a  level   surface    like    that  of   the 
skin,  but  presents  numerous  papilhe  and  laminae,  the  growth 
and   formation  of  horn   naturally  presents  many  peculiarities. 
This  folding   of    the    horn-secreting    surfaces    ensures   a   very 
intimate   connection    between   the   horny   and  sensitive    parts, 
a    union    characterised    by    firmness    and    resistance    to    dis- 
placement, but    presenting    also   a   sufficiently   yielding   char- 
acter  to   permit   of    the   growing   down   of    the   wall.       Leis- 
ering  suggested    the   following    theory   of    the   growth   of   the 
hoof  : — 

Every  point  in  the  corium,  however  small,  is  capable  of 
producing  horn  cells.  The  papillae,  the  little  surfaces  be- 
tween them,  the  sensitive  laminiii  and  their  interspaces,  are 
all  concerned  in  producing  horn,  but  each  in  a  particular 
way. 

Let  the  reader  imagine  the  papilke  in  function,  ilrstly,  they 
produce  a  circular  layer  of  horny  cells ;  below  these  another 
layer,  a  second,  a  third,  a  fourth,  and  so  on.  As,  however,  the 
older  cells  cannot  continue  to  retain  their  original  position  as 
the  newer  cells  are  formed,  they  are  gradually  thrust  outwards 
and  onwards  in  proportion  to  the  space  required  by  the  new 
cells.  As  each  papilla  is  more  or  less  conical,  the  rows  of 
cells  are  first  arranged  in  a  funnel  shape,  and  finally  each 
papilla  becomes  the  growing  base  of  a  horn  tube.  As, 
however,  the  individual  (and  concentric)  layers  of  cells  are 
firmly  united  to  one  another,  and  as  each  layer  is  intimately 
connected   with  the   next,   there   are  no  marked  intervals  be- 


HOKN  TUBES  AND  INTER-TUBULAR  SUBSTANCE.      105 

tween  the  little  tubes  thus  produced.  Eacli  papilla,  therefore, 
furnishes  the  material  for  and  produces  a  horn  tube  modelled 
on  its  own  form.  The  horn  tubes  correspond  in  size  to  the 
papillaB  producing  them,  the  thicker  papilhe  producing  larger 
tubes. 

But  this  is  only  a  part  of  the  process,  for  were  there  no 
cementing  substance  the  innumerable  tubes  thus  produced 
would  only  loosely  cover  the  sensitive  foot,  just  as  hair 
covers  a  man's  head  or  the  mane  a  horse's  neck,  and  therefore 
we  have  to  note  that  whilst  the  papilla-  are  producing  tubes, 
the  surfaces  between  are  secreting  inter-tubular  cells  which 
interlock  with  those  of  the  tubes,  and  bind  the  whole  into  one 
firm  mass  of  horn. 

The  strength  and  hardness  of  horn  depend  to  some  extent 
on  the  age  of  the  hoof.  The  older  the  cells  the  harder  they 
become  ;  hence  the  horn  close  to  tlie  secreting  parts  is  softer 
and  more  readily  cut  than  that  further  removed.  The  degree 
of  toughness  appears  to  depend  largely  on  the  arrangement 
of  the  cells,  being  greater  the  more  varying  the  direction 
between  the  cells  of  the  tubes  and  those  of  the  inter-tubular 
horn ;  it  is  perhaps  greatest  in  the  softer  horn  structures 
and  middle  sheatli  of  the  wall,  where  the  cells  run  in  every 
direction  (compare  fig.  65).  The  horn  of  the  sole  in  which 
the  arrangement  of  the  cells  is  entirely  different  exliibits  little 
toughness. 

Havint,^  obtained  an  idea  of  the  method  in  w^hich  the  horn 
of  the  wall,  sole,  and  frog  is  produced  and  grows,  it  only 
remains  to  note  how  the  horny  wall  and  horny  sole  are 
<jonnected  with  their  respective  sensitive  tissues. 

The  wall  is  produced  by  the  coronary  band.  The  horn 
grows  downwards,  surrounding  and  protecting  the  internal 
portions  of  the  foot.  But  it  would  be,  connected  with  neither 
the  sensitive  lamina  nor  with  the  horny  sole  were  it  not  that 
the  lamina;  have  the  property  of  producing  horny  material. 
The  lammal  liorn  is  produced  in  comparatively  small  quantities, 
and  is  not  tubular. 

As  there  is  no  spot  between  the  coronary  band  and  sensitive 
wall  where  the  secretion  of  horn  is  interrupted,  and  as  the 
inter-papillary  parts  of  the  lower  border  of  the  coronary  band 
are  continuous  with  the  commencement  of  the  sensitive  laminae, 


106 


THE   GROWTH   OF  THE   HOOF. 


there  can  be  no  sharp  margin  drawn  between  the  horn  pro- 
duced by  the  coronary  band  and  that  produced  by  the  sensitive 
laminae.  The  horn  produced  by  the  vascular  laminae,  however, 
has  a  different  structure,  and  bears  the  impress  of  the  tissue 
from  which  it  grows. 

The  following  explanation  has  been  given  of  the  production 
of  horn  by  the  sensitive  laminae.     Each  lamina  produces  a  row 


,/■>"».        --  ^  •X'ii.      •       ■    \   ,.      :feV         -   ■-=^    ^<-  /.{      >     All'   v^x. 


'f:i  ith  ■s>''-'-\   ■■ML''  *  ^'  ''>l''j  i#  •••  •.•  '    ■   >^-    ^   "■■(;■  '■  •%.  F ^^ 


v    ■  V    ,i 


Fig.  66. — Horizontal  section,  showing  relation  of  a  horny  lamina  to  the  corium.  A.  the 
horny  lamina  derived  from  the  cells  B,  B,  which  have  grown  into  the  corium  C.  When 
the  horny  lamina  is  withdrawn  after  macerating  the  foot,  the  space  it  occupied  is  the 
cleft  between  the  "  fleshy  "  lamina;,  and  the  processes  upon  which  the  lines  from  B  end 
are  then  known  as  secondary  laminse.  It  will  be  seen  that  they  increase  the  horn- 
producing  area ;  the  cellular  character  of  the  horny  lamina  is,  however,  still  evident. 
(From  a  micro-photo.,  Oc.  3,  obj.  7.)  ^ 


of  horny  cells  on  either  of  its  surfaces.  The  opposing  rows  of 
horny  cells  between  each  pair  of  sensitive  laminse  unite, 
forming  a  single  horny  lamina.  Hence  each  pair  of  sensitive 
laminse  enclose  a  horny  lamina,  and  the  total  number  of  horny 
and  sensitive  laminae  is  approximately  equal.  The  amount  of 
horn  contributed  by  the  sensitive  laminae  to  the  middle  layer 
of  the  wall  is  extremely  small,  being  confined  to  a  very  thin 
layer  of  cells  secreted  by  the  margins  of  the  sensitive  lamiut^e, 


PART   PLAYED   BY   THE   LAMINi-E.  107 

and  collected  in  the  interspace  between  two  horny  laminae. 
All  the  rest  of  the  cells  go  to  the  formation  of  horny 
laminae. 

Henle  {Das  Wachsthum  des  menschlichen  Nagcls  unci  des 
Pferdehufs,  Gottingen,  1884,  p.  32)  says,  "  In  my  opinion  the 
laminae  of  the  sensitive  wall  correspond  to  the  folds  of  the 
corium  in  the  human  nail-bed.  The  horny  laminae  correspond 
to  the  stratum  mucosum  of  the  nail,  and  between  the  two 
structures  there  is  only  this  difference,  that  in  man  the 
stratum  mucosum  and  the  horny  layer  are  shar23ly  differentiated 
from  one  another,  whilst  in  the  horse  the  horny  laminae  and 
the  horny  wall  insensibly  coalesce.  From  this  fact  I  conclude 
that  in  man  the  body  of  the  nail  glides  forward  over  the 
deeper  structures  without  taking  up  new  elements,  whilst,  as 
in  the  hoof  the  horny  laminae  and  wall  are  intimately  connected, 
it  seems  quite  possible  that  the  wall  may  receive  additions 
from  the  laminae.  That  this  increment  is  very  slight  however, 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  wall  remains  of  equal  thickness 
throughout  any  vertical  line."  (For  cut  of  human  nail-bed, 
see  p.  61.) 

The  horny  laminie  produced  by  the  sensitive  wall  are 
gradually  thrust  or  carried  by  the  downward  growth  of  the 
horny  wall  towards  the  ground,  remaining,  however,  in  un- 
broken continuity  with  the  middle  sheath  of  the  wall,  and, 
as  a  whole,  representing  the  inner  sheath.  On  the  ground 
surface  of  the  hoof  thev  form  the  white  line.  Normal  cppowth 
of  the  wall  essentially  depends  on  a  normal  condition  of  the 
sensitive  and  horny  laminae.  The  layers  of  cells  formed 
by  the  latter  may  be  regarded  as  permitting  the  gradual 
downward  movement  of  the  horny  wall,  and  as  preventing 
its  quitting  its  proper  direction.  Such  an  explanation  is 
strengthened  by  the  existence  of  a  l^emarkable  peculiarity  in 
the  formation  of  the  horny  laminae,  which  will  later  be  de- 
scribed. 

The  firm  connection  between  the  laminal  and  middle  sheaths 
of  the  wall,  and  the  interdigitation  of  the  horny  and  sensitive 
laminae,  explain  the  intimate  connection  between  the  horny  and 
sensitive  walls,  but  not  that  between  the  hornv  wall  and  sole,  for 
the  laminal  sheath,  which  in  its  continuous  downward  progress 
projects  beyond  the  laminae,  would  not  of  itself  form  a  sufficient 


108 


THE  XiROWTH    OF   THE   HOOF. 


bond  between  the  two.  The  lower  ends  of  the  sensitive  laminae 
are  provided,  however,  with  horn-secreting  papilhe,  which  again 
are  continuous  with  those  of  the  sensitive  sole,  so  that  in  the 
hoof  after  removal  from  the  foot  they  appear  merely  to  be  the 
marginal  papilke  of  the  sensitive  sole.  At  the  point  where 
wall  and  sole  meet,  and  between  the  individual  horny  laminae, 
these  papilhe  and  the  surfaces  between  them  produce  tubes  and 
inter-tubular  horn,  and  thus  fill  the  spaces   previously  occupied 


^- 


FlG.  (57. — t'ross  section  of  the  cxMinectiny'  sheath  of  the  wall.  a.  iimeiinust  portion  of  the 
protective  slieath  of  the  wall :  tlie  horn  tubes  are  seen  to  extend  right  up  to  the  liorn 
haniina; ;  b,  portion  of  the  vascular  wall ;  c,  portions  of  horn  lamina?  connected  with  horn 
wall ;  d ,  irregularly  developed  horn  laniinte ;  c",  the  so-called  secondary  lamina; ;  d, 
sensitive  or  vascular  lamina;;  d' ,  irregularly  developed  vascular  lamina;;  e,  injected 
arterial  vessels. 


by  the  sensitive  laminae,  which  would  otherwise  divide  the  horny 
lamina?.  The  horn  thus  thrown  out  connects  the  lower  portions 
of  the  laminal  sheath  with  the  sole,  and  assists  in  forming  the 
"  white  line  "  (compare  fig.  h^).  Strictly  speaking,  therefore, 
the  white  line  is  produced  by  the  sensitive  wall  alone.  The 
horny  lamincC  are  derived  from  the  lateral  surfaces  of  the  sensi- 
tive lamina^  which,  however,  they  have  left  behind ;  the  inter- 
laminal  horn  is  a  later  acquisition,  being  produced  by  the 
papilla?  which  terminate  each  sensitive  lamina,  and,  like  the  • 
horn  of  the  sole,  is  still  in  connection  with  the  structure  pro- 
ducing it. 

An  interesting  point  has  been  raised  as  to  how  the  coronary 
papilla?  secrete  tubes  of  horn  and  not  solid  cylinders.  It 
is,  of  course,  clear   that,  as  the  papilla  becomes  covered  with 


FUNCTION   OF   THE   SENSITIVE   AVALL. 


109 


cells  and  these  again  are  thrust  off  by  continued  growth,  a 
cyUnder  must  be  formed.  It  would 
seem,  however,  that  the  cells  produced 
by  the  tip  of  the  papilla  are  different 
in  character  to  those  produced  by  the 
sides,  and  that  at  a  very  short  distance 
from  the  papilla  itself  the  central  cells 
of  the  liorn  cylinder  begin  to  contract 
so  that  spaces  are  left,  much  in  the 
same  way  as  in  the  stalks  of  certain 
grasses.  As  growth  proceeds,  the  cen- 
tral cells  contract  more  and  more,  until 
the  original  cvlinder  becomes  a  veritable 
tube. 

By  examining  a  cross  section  of  horn 
laminae,  like  that  shown  in  fig.  68,  with 
^-inch  objective,  it  is  seen,  even  after 
treatment  with  water  alone,  that  the 
lamina  consists  of  two  distinct  parts. 
The  condition  is  better  brought  out  by 


the  use  of  alkalis  or  colouring  materials. 


On  treating  the  section  with  dilute 
potash  solution  the  outer  part  of  the 
lamina  clears  up  and  becomes  almost 
invisible,  while  the  centre  remains  un- 
altered, save  that  its  cells  become  rather 
more  distinct.  Again,  the  outer  layer 
of  cells  readily  absorbs  a  carmine  stain 
while  the  inner  refuses  it.  The  outer 
portion  consists  of  young,  uncornified 
cells  just  secreted  by  the  sensitive  la- 
minte.  The  central,  darker  part  is 
made  up  of  cells  which  have  already 
become  cornified.  The  function  of  the  well-developed  mucous 
sheath  (stratum  mucosum)  of  the  wall  appears  to  be  to  facilitate 
the  downward  movement  of  the  wall  from  coronet  to  bearing 
marsin.  After  disease  of  the  sensitive  wall  the  downward 
growth  appears  impeded  and  the  crust  is  apt  to  show  defor- 
mation. 

The  function  of  the  sensitive  wall  has  been  the  subject  of 


Fig.  68.  —  Transverse  section  of 
two  horn  lamina)  still  connected 
with  the  middle  sheath  of  the 
wall,  a,  middle  sheath ;  b,  trans- 
verse section  of  horn  tubules  ; 
c,  central  cornified  portion  of 
horn  lamina ;  d,  e,  and/,  young 
horn  surrounding  the  fully  cor- 
nified parts. 


110  THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  HOOF. 

lively  controversy.      The  principal  views  on   the  point  are  as 
follows : — 

(1)  The  sensitive   wall  only   produces  the  laminal  sheath  of 

the  horn  wall.  This  is  the  generally  accepted  view, 
and  is  supported  by  H.  Bouley  and  Leisering. 

(2)  The  sensitive  wall  produces  the  entire  mass  of  cement 

substance  or  inter- tubular  horn  (Fuchs). 

(3)  The  sensitive  wall  produces  the  inter-tubular  horn  of  the 

inner  (white)  sheath  of  the  wall  (Brauell). 

(4)  The   sensitive   wall   has   no   part  in   the    production  of 

horn  laminae,  but  the  entire  wall,  including  the 
lamina,  grows  downwards  from  the  coronet.  The 
sensitive  wall  produces  a  fine  layer  of  horn  lying 
between  the  laminie  and  the  mucous  sheath  of  the 
sensitive  laminae.  This  view  appears  untenable,  if 
only  because  it  fails  to  explain  the  gradual  increase 
in  width  of  the  horny  lamimv  as  one  proceeds  from 
above   downwards. 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE  MECHANICAL  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  FOOT. 

At  rest  the  horse's  weight  is  distributed  over  four  columns, 
the  framework  of  each  of  which  is  formed  by  bones.  Taking 
any  one  of  these  columns  we  find  the  load  finally  falls  on 
the  pedal  bone,  and  is  transmitted  by  it  to  the  hoof,  which 
may  be  compared  to  a  socle  or  plinth  sustaining  the  entire 
limb.  The  body- weight,  however,  is  not  distributed  equally 
over  the  four  hoofs,  the  front  feet,  which  lie  nearer  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  body,  carrying  a  greater  proportion  than  the 
liind. 

Every  object  must  be  supported,  at  least  at  one  point.  If 
all  the  parts  surrounding  this  are  themselves  in  equilibrium 
the  point  of  support  will  lie  vertically  below  the  centre  of 
gravity.  Living  objects,  including  the  horse,  have,  instead  of 
a  point,  a  surface  of  support,  which,  in  the  horse,  may  be 
delimited  by  lines  uniting  the  outer  borders  of  the  hoofs, 
and  will  therefore  be  found  to  take  the  shape  of  an  elon- 
gated rectangle.  The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  body  falls  at 
a  point  somewhat  in  advance  of  the  intersection  of  the  two 
diagonals. 

When  the  horse  stands  on  three  legs,  the  centre  of  gravity 
is  shifted,  and  the  surface  of  support  becomes  triangular.  If 
a  hind-foot  is  rested,  the  point  wilLbe  displaced  in  a  back- 
ward direction,  if  a  fore-foot,  forwards.  As  the  feet  can  only 
sustain  weight  when  in  contact  with  the  ground,  it  follows 
that  in  movement  the  surface  of  support  may  be  an  elongated 
strip,  i.e.,  a  surface  as  broad  as  the  hoof,  and  as  long  as  the 
space  between  the  two  hoofs  (trot),  or  may  even  be  diminished 
to  the  area  presented  by  the  single  hoof,  which  for  the  time 
being  carries  the  entire  body-weight  (gallop).  In  addition  to 
the  weight  of  the  body,  the  limbs  have  often  to  bear  a  con- 

111 


112  THE   MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS   OF   THE    FOOT. 

sideiable  added  load,  and  are  hence  exposed  during  severe  work 
to  many  chances  of  injury  and  disease. 

The  action  of  weight  on  the  hoof  differs  at  a  slow  walk  and 
at  higher  rates  of  speed.  At  a  walk  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
load  is  slight,  but  at  the  trot,  gallop,  or  leap  it  greatly  increases. 
At  these  paces  tlie  impact  of  the  body- weight  is  violently  trans- 
mitted to  the  lower  parts  of  the  limbs,  and,  in  proportion  to 
the  rapidity  with  which  the  animal  moves,  the  hoof  suffers  a  more 
or  less  violent  shock  at  each  contact  with  the  earth,  such  shock 
producing  in  its  turn  a  corresponding  counter-shock.  Considering 
the  weicfht  of  the  animal's  bodv,  it  is  clear  that,  were  it  not  for 
the  peculiar  anti-concussive  arrangements  in  the  hoof  and  limb, 
such  violence  must  be  followed  by  severe  injury  both  to  limb 
and  trunk.  The  angular  formation  of  the  limbs,  and  the 
position  in  which  they  come  in  contact  with  the  earth,  the 
presence  of  joints,  and  the  excentric  form  of  their  articular 
surfaces,  the  resiliency  of  articular  cartilages,  the  lubrication  by 
synovia,  the  elasticity  of  ligaments,  of  the  lateral  cartilages, 
plantar  cushion,  coronary  band,  and  horny  capsule,  and, 
finally,  the  peculiar  union  between  hoof  and  pedal  bone,  all 
co-operate  in  diminishing  the  effects  of  violent  impact  with  the 
earth,  and  in  preventing  transmission  of  shock  to  the  trunk. 

An  exhaustive  examination  of  these  anti-concussive  media 
would  extend  to  even  more  distant  regions,  for  the  entire  limb 
is  elastic,  while  the  fore-limbs  are  connected  with  the  trunk, 
not  by  bones,  but  by  muscles,  a  device  which,  in  itself,  tends 
very  materially  to  minimise  shock.  The  hind-limbs,  certainly, 
are  directly  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  skeleton,  but  this  is 
compensated  for  by  their  angular  formation,  and  by  the  ligament- 
ous tissues  connected  with  the  stifle  and  hock  joints.  In  every 
joint,  therefore,  the  vibration  transmitted  to  the  limb  is  some- 
what diminished,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  body  sustains  only 
slight  and  unimportant  disturbance.  Of  the  lower  joints  of 
the  limb,  the  fetlock  shows  this  anti-concussive  mechanism 
best.  Its  articular  depression,  into  which  fits  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  metacarpal  bone,  consists  of  three  bones,  con- 
nected together,  but  nevertheless  relatively  movable.  By 
means  of  the  powerful  suspensory  ligament,  the  sesamoid  bones 
are  suspended  from  the  bones  of  the  carpus,  and  are  connected 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  metacarpus  ;  hence,  when  the  fetlock 


HOW   CONCUSSION   IS  NEUTRALISED.  113 

joint  is  excessively  flexed  under  the  incidence  of  the  body- 
weight,  these  bones  yield  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  sus- 
pensory ligament,  in  common  with  the  inferior  and  lateral 
sesamoidean  ligaments,  and  the  two  bands  of  the  suspensory 
which  pass  downwards  and  forwards  (fig.  25,  h^)  to  unite 
with  the  extensor  pedis  tendon,  assure  to  this  joint  a  secure 
position  without  any  exertion  of  muscular  strength,  while 
yet  permitting  the  backward  and  downward  movement  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  metacarpal  bone  during  movement. 

The  anatomical  peculiarities  indicated  greatly  assist  the 
fetlock  joint  in  neutralising  shocks  produced  by  the  incidence 
of  the  body- weight,  so  that  in  the  normal  position  of  the  fet- 
lock the  force  of  impact  is  at  least  diminished  by  one-half,  and 
what  remains  is  transmitted  through  the  bones  of  the  foot  to  the 
hoof.  As  at  the  coronet  joint  the  coronet  bone  is  firmly  attached 
to  the  suffraginis,  little  movement  can  occur,  and,  therefore,  little 
diminution  of  shock.  The  coronet  bone  is  connected  directly 
with  the  suffraginis,  and  indirectly  with  the  sesamoid  bones  and 
common  extensor  pedis  tendon,  an  arrangement  which  prevents 
displacement  of  the  coronet  joint  under  any  ordinary  load. 

So  far  as  the  dissipation  of  shock  is  concerned,  the  pedal 
joint  is  much  better  arranged,  its  lower  articular  surface  consisting 
of  two  bones,  the  pedal  and  navicular.  The  mobility  of  this 
joint  is  greater  than  that  of  the  coronet  joint,  though  not  equal 
to  that  of  the  fetlock ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  joint  allows  of 
considerable  lateral  deviation.  It  is  assisted  in  distributing 
concussion,  firstly,  by  the  division  of  its  articular  surface  into 
two ;  secondly,  by  the  possibility  of  movement  between  the 
pedal  and  coronet  bones  ;  and  thirdly,  by  the  elastic  nature  of 
the  structures  between  the  pedal  bone  and  hoof. 

The  pedal  and  navicular  bones  are  connected  by  ligaments, 
namely,  two  strong  lateral  ligaments,  two  suspensory  ligaments 
of  the  navicular  bone  (postero-lateral  ligaments),  which  run 
upwards  somewhat  spirally  arranged,  and  the  fibro-elastic 
apparatus  attached  to  the  skin,  referred  to,  p.  43  (fig.  27,  e), 
in  addition  to  the  ligaments  connecting  the  navicular  and 
pedal  bones  (strahlbeinhufbeinbiinder)  and  the  navicular  bone 
and  lateral  cartilages  (strahlbeinhufknorpelbander). 

Broadly  viewing,  then,  the  collective  ligaments  of  the  three 
joints  of  the  foot,  they  are  seen  to  lie  chiefly  on  the  posterior 

H 


114  THE   MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS   OF   THE   FOOT. 

surfaces  of  the  bones,  and,  owing  to  their  method  of  origin  and 
insertion  and  their  radiating  formation,  to  be  capable  of  assuring 
the  relative  position  of  the  bones  forming  the  joints  without 
the  intervention  of  other  structures.  The  justice  of  this  theo- 
retical deduction  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  after  section  of 
the  flexor  pedis  perforans  and  perforatus,  the  angle  between 
the  metacarpus  and  os  suffraginis  often  remains  little 
altered. 

The  joints  named,  and  especially  the  pedal  joint,  are  further 
supported  in  position  by  tendons,  particularly  by  the  flexor 
tendons,  with  their  limiting  and  encircling  ligaments. 

Immediately  the  foot  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground  the 
ligaments  and  tendons  are  thrown  into  tension,  the  position  of 
the  hoof  remaining  the  same  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 
this  period.  We  see  that  the  articular  depression  of  the  pedal 
joint  forms  the  point  of  rotation  for  the  termination  of  the 
column  of  bones  carrying  the  weight  of  the  body.  We  see, 
also,  that,  varying  with  the  weight  carried  by  the  limb,  the 
fetlock  joint  moves  to  a  certain  extent  backwards  and  down- 
wards, though  it  returns  again  immediately  the  load  diminishes, 
and  that  while  the  fetlock  has  full  play  the  hoof  remains 
stationary.  This  play  of  the  fetlock  would  be  impossible  were 
the  pedal  joint  immovably  connected  with  it. 

The  strain  on  tendons  and  ligaments  is  not,  however,  equally 
severe  throughout  these  joints  at  all  times,  but  tension  and 
relaxation  alternate  according  as  the  axis  of  the  fetlock  is 
more  or  less  inclined  to  the  horizontal  plane.  At  the  moment 
when  the  fetlock  is  most  oblique,  all  the  ligaments  of  the 
fetlock  joint,  and  especially  the  superior  suspensory  ligament 
and  the  perforans  and  perforatus  tendons,  are  exceedingly 
tense.  The  ligaments  of  the  pedal  joint,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  relaxed.  But  just  before  the  hoof  leaves  the  ground,  all 
the  ligaments  of  the  pedal  joint  become  tense  to  their  extreme 
margins.  At  this  moment,  in  consequence  of  the  forward 
movement  of  the  body,  the  foot  is  tilted,  but  the  flexor  muscles 
do  not  begin  to  act  fully  until  the  toe  of  the  foot  quits  the 
ground.  As  the  weight  diminishes,  the  suspensory  ligaments 
of  the  navicular  bone,  the  four  posterior  corono-suffraginal 
ligaments,  the  ligaments  passing  between  the  lateral  cartilages 
and  skin  of  fetlock,  constituting  the  plantar  aponeurosis,  and 


CHANGES  IN   FORM   OF   THE   HOOF.  115 

especially  the  cartilaginous  plate  at  the  back  of  the  pastern 
(fig.  27,  e),  become  excessively  tense,  causing  the  navicular  bone 
to  be  applied  closely  to  the  posterior  part  of  the  articular 
surface  of  the  coronet  bone,  and  the  anterior  rounded  part  of 
its  articular  prominence  to  be  pressed  firmly  into  the  articular 
depression  of  the  pedal  bone.  The  formation  of  the  articular 
groove  of  the  coronet  bone  favours  the  fixation  of  the  pedal  joint 
at  the  moment  when  the  parts  are  relieved  of  weight.  When 
flexion  is  complete,  extension  immediately  begins,  and  the  hoof 
is  advanced,  whereupon  the  stage  of  weight-bearing  commences 
and  is  followed  by  relaxation,  a  series  of  changes  which  recurs 
again  at  each  step. 

In  order  to  ensure  free  and  perfect  action,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  hoof  should  leave  the  ground  lightly  and 
easily.  Everything  which  impedes  this  phase  of  movement 
interferes  with  action,  and  may  lead  to  disease  of  tendon, 
ligament,  or  bone.  Such  action  can,  however,  only  result 
when  weight  is  equally  distributed  throughout  the  joints  of 
all  four  limbs,  and  the  (imaginary)  axis  of  the  foot,  as  viewed 
from  the  side,  appears  nearly  straight.      Slight    deviation    of 

the  axis   of   the  foot  in  a  forward  direction,  thus   I   does  no 

harm,  but  deviation  backwards  is  excessively  injurious,  be- 
cause it  leads  to  greater  weight  being  thrown  on  the  above- 
mentioned  ligaments,  and  may  produce  lameness  without 
the  horse  being  exposed  to  any  special  strain.  Injury  may 
result  even  when  standing  in  the  stable,  especially  when  the 
surface  of  the  pavement  falls  too  much  towards  the  heel-post. 

Bearing  in  mind  these  facts,  the  farrier  should  strive  to  so 
form  the  hoof  that  the  load  between  the  ligaments  and  tendons 
in  the  region  of  the  pedal  joint  is  evenly  distributed. 

Changes  in  Form  of  the  Hoof. 

We  have  seen  that  the  body>weight  is  conveyed  to  the  pedal 
bone  through  the  medium  of  the  coronet  bone.  As,  however, 
the  pedal  bone  is  connected  through  the  laminal  sheath  of  the 
sensitive  wall  with  the  horny  wall,  it  is  clear  that  the  weight 
is  further  conveyed  to  the  horny  wall  itself.  This,  like  the 
other  parts  of  the  hoof,  is  somewhat  elastic.  Elastic  bodies 
change  their  shape  under  pressure,  a  rule  to  which  the  hoof 


116  THE   MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS    OF  THE    FOOT. 

is  no  exceptioD.  The  character  and  extent  of  these  changes  of 
form,  and  how  and  at  what  times  they  occur,  are  points  which 
have  been  studied  both  in  living  and  dead  hoofs,  though  results 
vary  greatly,  and  in  some  instances  even  contradict  one  another. 
This  is  explained  partly  by  the  different  interpretations  of 
different  observers,  partly  by  the  difference  of  the  objects 
examined,  and  partly  by  variations  in  methods  of  examination, 
though  it  is  also  probable  that  contradictory  results  have,  in 
certain  cases,  been  caused  by  unappreciated  or  doubtful 
anatomical  conditions  in   the  hoof. 

Historical. — The  elasticity  of  the  hoof  was  recognised  even 
in  the  last  century  by  Lafosse,  jun.,  and  J.  Clark,  although 
they  attributed  it  to  the  elasticity  of  the  horn  alone.  In 
1810  Bracy  Clark  went  a  step  further.  He  referred  the 
elasticity  of  the  hoof  to  the  formation  of  the  horny  capsule, 
which  he  divided  into  three  chief  paits — wall,  sole,  and  frog. 
He  also  laid  great  stress  on  the  flattening  of  the  concavity  of 
the  sole,  and  the  driving  apart  of  tlie  heels  by  the  frog  at  the 
moment  when  weight  was  placed  on  the  foot.  He  concluded 
that  any  interference  wdth  this  lateral  movement  of  the  heels 
by  the  shoe  might  be  injurious,  and  his  observations  were, 
therefore,  of  great  practical  importance,  for  they  form  part  of 
the  foundation  of  our  present  system  of  shoeing.  The  shoe  he 
recommended  had  no  heels,  possessed  a  perfectly  horizontal 
bearing  surface,  and  had  nail  holes  distributed  through  its 
anterior  half  only.  A  Frenchman,  Perier,  attacked  these 
views  to  some  extent  in  1835,  for  while  he  allowed  that  the 
sides  of  the  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof  might  move  slightly, 
he  denied  that  the  heels  as  a  whole  did  so.  An  English 
experimenter,  Gloag,  of  the  Army  Veterinary  Department, 
working  on  both  livino'  and  dead  hoofs,  initiated  new  ideas  in 
1849.  He  found  no  lateral  movement,  no  sinking  of  the  sole, 
but  only  a  slight  sinking  of  the  bulbs  of  the  heel.  Next 
year,  however,  Gloag's  results  were  contradicted  by  Eeeve. 
In  order  to  demonstrate  the  descent  of  the  sole  in  the  living 
horse,  he  used  a  shoe  which  carried  between  the  quarters 
a  cross  bar  provided  on  the  upper  side  with  small  upright 
spikes.  After  the  horse  had  been  walked  a  few  steps,  the 
hoof  w^as  examined,  but  showed  nothing  to  indicate  that  the 
sole   descended.     The   horse  was   then  trotted  and  galloped ; 


EARLY   EXPERIMENTS   ON   EXPANSION   OF   THE   FOOT.  117 

a  second  examination  left  no  doubt,  for  each  spike,  which  was 
still  at  the  same  distance  from  the  surface  of  the  sole  as  at- 
the  commencement  of  the  examination,  had  produced  a  mark 
in  the  sole.  There  were  altogether  nine  visible  punctures, 
showiiif!:  that  the  sole  during  movement  had  sunk  and  risen 
again.  In  a  similar  way  he  also  proved  the  lateral  expansion 
of  the  hoof  at  the  bearino;  surface. 

The  famous  French  experimenter,  H.  Bouley,  in  1851,  like- 
wise proved  the  dilatation  of  the  hoof  and  the  descent  of  the 
sole  during  movement.  In  1852  Mills  traced  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  hoof,  both  when  bearing  weight  and  when  free,  and 
showed  that  the  circumference  of  the  hoof  when  loaded  was 
greater  than  when  unloaded. 

Leisering  and  Hartmann,in  1861,  made  experiments  on  dead 
and  livinsj  hoofs.  Leiserino-  found  that  in  dead  feet  the 
posterior  parts  of  the  horny  sole  sink  more  than  other  points, 
provided  the  navicular  bone  is  also  under  pressure.  He  con- 
sidered that  the  descent  of  the  sole  is  accompanied  by  only 
a  slight  dilatation  of  the  periphery  and  bearing  surface,  and 
that  at  the  coronary  border  of  the  wall  there  is  even  diminution 
in  size.  According  to  his  view,  the  hoof  carries  the  greatest 
weight  at  the  moment  when  the  fetlock  joint  is  most  extended 
forward  (dorsal  flexion).  Experimental  measurements  of  living 
hoofs,  which  he  made  in  company  with  Hartmann,  gave  the 
following  results : — 

Dilatation  of  the  lateral  w^alls  of  the  hoof  at  the  bearing 
surface,  about  1  to  2  millimetres,  at  the  coronary  border  an  equal 
degree  of  contraction ;  dilatation  of  the  walls  of  the  heel  at  the 
coronary  margin,  2  to  4  millimetres,  and  at  the  bearing  surface, 
2  to  3  millimetres. 

Leisering's  views  on  the  movement  of  the  foot  were  generally 
accepted  until  1880,  but  in  1881  Lecbner  came  forward  with 
his  experiments  made  on  dead  hoofs.  These  seemed  to  directly 
contradict  the  views  previously  received.  Lechner  even  believed 
that  the  previously  received  views  as  to  the  movement  of  the 
hoof  were  entirely  erroneous  and  had  stood  in  the  way  of  rational 
shoeing.  He  placed  especial  w^eight  on  what  he  called  rotation 
of  the  foot,  and  laid  down  the  following  dicta : — 

1.  Dilatation  at  the  bearinii'  surface  in  the  sense  of  the 
older  theories,  that  is,  increase  beyond  the  normal  size  of  the 


118  THE   MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS   OF   THE    FOOT. 

hoof  when  bearing  weight,  never  occurs  in  a  normally  formed 
and  sound  hoof. 

2.  The  hoof  dilates,  or  at  least  becomes  tense,  at  the 
moment  of  greatest  dorsal  flexion*  of  the  fetlock,  along  the 
entire  coronary  border,  but  not  along  the  bearing  margin.  On 
the  contrary,  at  this  moment  the  posterior  part  of  the  hoof 
"  rotates "  on  the  bearing  surface,  especially  the  angle  of 
the  bars  and  the  walls  of  the  heels,  together  with  the  other 
tissues  lying  between  them,  whilst  the  wall  and  sole  of 
the  anterior  half  of  the  hoof  move  towards  the  middle  line, 
that  is,  the  hoof  becomes  narrower  below  at  the  moment  when 
the  anterior  half  of  the  bearing  surface  is  under  the  greatest 
strain. 

3.  The  sole  does  not  sink  at  the  moment  indicated,  the  bars 
and  portions  of  the  sole  next  them  rather  rising  and  approaching 
one  another  laterally.  The  sole,  therefore,  presents  a  narrower 
and  not  a  wider  appearance. 

4.  The  limbs  of  the  frog  are  not  thrust  asunder  at  the  above- 
named  moment,  that  is,  broadened  and  pressed  backwards,  but 
are  pressed  together,  thickened  from  the  sides,  and  their  length, 
as  a  whole,  increased,  the  under  portions  of  the  bulbs  being 
drawn  somewhat  backwards  and  outwards. 

5.  This  rotary  movement  in  the  hoof  occurs  both  above  and 
below  synchronously  and  isochronously,  that  is,  simultaneously 
and  at  equal  periods  of  time. 

Lechner's  results,  which  are  entirely  supported  by  those  of 
Gierth,  introduced  new  views  as  to  the  physiology  of  the  horse's 
hoof,  and  at  the  same  time  gave  rise  to  fresh  experiments. 
Lungwitz  and  his  assistant  (now  Oberroszarzt  a.  D.  H.  Schaaf) 
made  experiments  on  living  hoofs  in  regard  to  dilatation  of  the 
hoof  at  the  bearing  surface,  using  a  specially  constructed 
instrument.  The  dilatation  of  the  bearing  border  during  the 
period  when  the  hoof  carries  weight  is  shown  in  the  following 
table : — 


*  It  will  be  noted  that  the  fetlock  joint  may  be  flexed  in  a  forward  direction 
(dorsal  flexion),  as  during  the  last  phases  of  movement,  preparatory  to  the  foot 
leaving  the  ground.  Dorsal  flexion  of  the  fetlock  is  sometimes,  though  perhaps 
less  precisely,  described  as  "  extension.''  Flexion  backwards  (volar  flexion)  takes 
place  during  movement  of  the  limb  through  the  air,  and  is  the  condition  most 
often  indicated,  in  this  country,  by  the  term  "flexion.'' 


LUNGWITZ'S  CONCLUSIONS  ON  EXPANSION. 


119 


Number  of 
Experiments. 

Dilatation  in  Millimetres. 

At  Outer 
Wall  of  Heel. 

At  Inner 
Wall  of  Heel. 

Between. 

At  rest, 

Walk, 

Trot, 

Gallop,    ..... 

32 
33 
69 
12 

0-25 
0-55 
0-84 
106 

0-30 

0  70 
1-22 
1-81 

0-55 
1-28 
2-23 
3-04 

In  addition,  Lungwitz  by  himself  undertook  another  series 
of  experiments  on  living  feet,  using  girdles,  callipers,  and  pieces 
of  gummed-on  paper.  He  came  to  the  following  conclu- 
sions : — 

1.  Dead  hoofs,  both  sound  and  diseased,  except  those  with 
ossified  lateral  cartilages,  dilate  at  the  coronary  margin  of  the 
heels. 

2.  In  healthy  hoofs  the  bearing  surface  dilates,  both  at  the 
coronet  and  at  the  ground  surface. 

3.  This  dilatation  results  in  a  slight  shortening  of  the  longi- 
tudinal diameter  of  the  hoof,  which  is  best  shown  at  the 
coronary  border. 

4.  Dilatation  of  the  bearino-  surface  of  the  wall  is  shown  in 
different  ways,  according  to  the  form  of  the  hoof.  In  flat  or 
laminitic  hoofs  it  increases  from  the  toe  towards  the  heels,  but 
diminishes  again  towards  the  bearing  surface, 

o.  Dilatation  of  the  bearing  surface  is  impeded  by  shoeing 
and  by  dryness  of  the  horn. 

6.  Flexibility  of  the  horn,  and  a  well-developed  but  un- 
trimmed  frog,  favour  dilatation  of  the  hoof  at  the  bearing 
surface. 

7.  In  hoofs  with  wired-in  heels  and  compressed  bars,  dilata- 
tion under  the  body-weight  may  still  occur,  but  the  most 
posterior  part  of  the  bearing  surface  of  the  heel  does  not  take 
part  in  it — rather  the  contrary. 

In  the  year  1882  Bayer  undertook  experiments  on  the 
dilatation  of  the  living  hoof,  using  an  electrical  apparatus.  He 
also  found  that,  when  weight  was  placed  on  the  foot,  dilatation 
occurred  at  the  heels  both  at  the  coronary  and  bearing  margins. 


120  THE   MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS   OF   THE   FOOT. 

Martinak  measured  the  living  hoof  by  means  of  callipers, 
and  found  well  marked  dilatation  at  the  bulbs  and  heels  of  the 
hoof  when  loaded.  His  experiments  on  the  living  hoof,  in 
which  he  used  a  bar  shoe,  also  seemed  to  contradict  Lechner's 
rotation  theory. 

Steglich,  along  with  Schenkel,  made  experiments  on  dead 
hoofs.      They  concluded  that : — 

"  The  weight  of  the  body  produces  lateral  dilatation  of  the 
hoof,  greatest  at  the  coronary  border  and  least  at  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  horny  capsule.  Dilatation  both  of  the  coronary 
and  bearing  surfaces  is  best  marked  in  the  region  of  the  heels. 
Towards  the  quarters  it  becomes  less,  and  where  the  quarters 
abut  on  the  toe  it  entirely  disappears.  The  cause  of  dilatation 
at  the  coronary  margin  is  the  thrusting  downwards  and  inwards 
of  the  broader  parts  of  the  os  coronas  between  the  lateral 
cartilages  at  the  moment  of  greatest  extension  (greatest  weight). 
Dilatation  at  the  bearing  surface  is  produced  by  lateral  dis- 
placement of  the  plantar  cushion  and  horny  frog  under  the 
pressure  of  the  body-weight.  The  simultaneous  descent  of 
the  horny  sole  permits  of  expansion  of  the  bearing  surface 
of   the  foot." 

Schwentzky  measured  twenty-two  living  hoofs,  and,  except  in 
the  case  of  four  abnormal  hoofs,  found  that,  when  the  animals  were 
standing  at  rest,  the  amount  of  dilatation  at  the  bearing  margin 
was  from  1  to  2  millimetres ;  the  average  1*45  millimetre. 

Peters  has  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  study  of  the 
expansion  of  the  foot.  He  advanced  what  was  termed  the 
"  depression  theory,"  and  placed  .particular  stress  on  the 
possibility  of  elongation  of  the  laminal  sheath  of  the  wall  and 
on  the  direction  of  its  fibres,  by  which  alone  descent  of  the 
pedal  bone  becomes  possible,  and  in  the  further  study  of  which 
the  explanation  of  all  the  phenomena  of  the  movements  of  the 
foot  is  to  be  found.  His  experiments  led  him  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  pedal  bone,  which  is  fastened  to  the  wall,  enjoys  a 
certain  degree  of  mobility,  owing  to  the  possibility  of  elongation 
of  the  laminal  sheath  and  to  the  elasticity  of  the  coronary 
border  of  the  hoof ;  that  movement  occurs  around  the  toe  of 
the  OS  pedis  as  around  a  fixed  point,  and,  therefore,  that  the 
navicular  bone,  being,  as  it  were,  an  appendix  of  the  os  pedis, 
must  take  part  in  these  movements.      Tlie  depression  or  elastic 


THEOKIES   OF   STEGLICH,   PETERS,   BAYER,   ETC.  121 

distention  of  the  wall  occurs  in  a  backward  direction,  causing 
change  in  the  lateral  profile  of  the  hoof.  He  advances,  as  the 
most  important  of  his  conclusions,  the  following  : — 

1.  The  OS  pedis  and  lateral  cartilages,  together  with  the 
navicular  bone,  perform  movements  within  the  horny  capsule, 
rotating  in  the  segment  of  a  circle  round  the  point  of  the 
toe. 

2.  The  elastic  wall,  through  its  laminal  sheath,  is  forced  to 
follow  this  movement,  and,  therefore,  the  quarters  of  the  hoof 
change  in  shape,  while  the  coronary  border,  being  thrust  out- 
wards and  backwards,  descends  to  a  slight  extent,  and  the  height 
of  the  hoof  is  diminished. 

3.  Diminution  in  height  is  accompanied  by  increase  in  the 
transverse  diameter  of  the  lioof  ;  as  much  space  being  thus 
gained  at  the  sides,  both  at  the  coronary  and  bearing  borders, 
as  is  lost  by  reduction  in  height.  Lateral  dilatation  is  produced 
by  the  walls  being  pressed  outwards  and  the  bearing  surface 
following  suit  under  the  pressure  of  the  pedal  bone  and  lateral 
cartilages. 

4.  The  posterior  part  of  the  sole  becomes  flattened  under  the 
pressure  of  the  body- weight,  and,  by  thrusting  aside  the  portions 
of  the  wall  nearest  it,  provides  space  laterally  exactly  correspond- 
ing to  that  lost  owing  to  the  pressure  from  above. 

Fambach's  experiments  on  the  laminal  sheath  of  the  hoof 
also  support  the  depression  theory.  Bendz  refers  the  dilatation 
of  the  heels  to  the  pressure  of  the  navicular  bone  on  the  bars. 
Bayer,  who  employed  an  electrical  instruuient  to  detect  the 
changes  of  form  in  the  hoof,  was  of  the  same  opinion. 
Foringer,  and  afterwards  Lungwitz,  Gutemicker,  Schwentzky, 
and  others,  made  similar  experiments.  Foringer,  who  employed 
a  specially  constructed  electrical  apparatus,  with  an  alarm  bell, 
examined  living!*  hoofs,  and  found  that  the  wall  of  the  heel 
dilated  both  at  the  coronary  and  bearing  surfaces,  and  that  the 
sole  was  depressed  during  movement.  Gutenacker,  employing 
Foringer 's  apparatus,  made  certain  discoveries  which  appear  to 
support  Peters'  depression  theory.  Schwentzky  also  used  an 
electrical  apparatus.  His  experiments  appear  to  agree  on 
essential  points  with  those  of  Bayer,  Fijringer,  Gutenacker,  and 
Lungwitz.  Lungwitz  probably  made  the  greatest  number  of 
experiments    on    the    living    hoof.       He    modified    Foringer's 


122  THE    MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS   OF  THE    FOOT. 

apparatus  in  such  a  way  as  to  permit  all  parts  of  the  hoof  to  be- 
examined.  He  experimented  both  on  the  animal  at  rest  and 
in  motion,  and  demonstrated  movements  in  all  parts  of  the  wall. 
His  researches  prove  the  occurrence  of  expansion  at  the 
coronary  and  bearing  surfaces  of  the  heels,  and  simultaneous 
depression  of  the  sole  at  the  moment  when  the  fetlock  joint  was 
most  extended  (or  dorsally  flexed).  Dominik's  experiments,  on 
the  other  hand,  which  extended  to  both  living  and  dead  hoofs, 
seem  rather  to  favour  Lechner's  rotation  theory. 

The  complicated  construction  and  form  of  the  hoof,  its  con- 
nection with  the  limb,  and  the  continuous  variation  of  the 
conditions  during  movement,  prevent  our  attaching  the  same 
importance  to  post-mortevi  experiments  as  to  those  made  on 
the  living  animal.  Infra-vitam  experiments,  moreover,  have 
a  greater  claim  to  consideration,  partly  because  of  the  great 
number  which  have  been  performed,  and  partly  because  of  the 
agreement  in  their  results.  The  following  principles,  based  on 
numerous  experiments,  agree  in  great  part  with  the  more 
important  experiments  both  old  and  new,  and  only  conflict  with 
those  of  Lechner  and  a  few  others. 

The  point  of  rotation  is   the  pedal  joint.      At  the  moment 
when  the  foot  first  meets  the  ground  pressure  is  slight.      It 
increases    as    the    limb    approaches   the  perpendicular,  and   is 
greatest  when    the    fetlock  is  most  markedly  extended,  after 
which  it  diminishes  until  the  hoof  is  raised  from  the  ground. 
The  changes  in  form  are    most    marked    at    the    moment   of 
greatest  extension  (dorsal  flexion)  of  the  fetlock  joint.      They 
consist,  firstly,  in  lateral  expansion  of  the  entire  heel  region ; 
secondly,  in  contraction  of  the  coronary  border  of  the  anterior 
half  of  the  hoof ;  thirdly,  in  diminution  in  the  height  of  the 
hoof  as  a  whole,  with  simultaneous  descent  of  the  bulbs,  and, 
fourthly,  in  descent  of  the  sole.      These  changes  occur  simul- 
taneously and  bear  a  direct  proportion  to  the  weight  imposed 
on  the  foot.     Leisering   accepts  Peters'  depression    theory  as 
explaining    these,    with,    however,    the    qualification    that    he 
regards  the  moment  of  greatest  change  in  form  as  coincident 
not  with  the  removal  of  weight  but  with  greatest  extension  (or 
dorsal  flexion)  of  the  fetlock  joint.     The  extent  of  displace- 
ment of  the  heels  and  sinking  of  the  sole  is  slight,  and  varies 
from  0'5  to  2  millimetres,  seldom  more. 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS  ON  EXPANSION. 


123 


In  order  to  understand  the  mechanics  of  the  hoof,  it  is 
desirable  to  study  the  changes  in  movement  somewhat  more 
closely.  According  to 
Peters'  theory, the  pedal 
bone,  with  its  comple- 
mentary parts,  the  na- 
vicular bone  and  lateral 
cartilages,  rotates  in  the 
segment  of  a  circle 
around  its  own  point, 
which  is  to  be  regarded 
as  its  axis.     If  we  bear 

in  mind  that  the  inter-  fig.  69.— vertical  cross  section  of  a  foot  seen  from  behind. 

.,  1         1         •  '^'  coronet  bone;   B,  navicular  bone;   C,  pedal  bone; 

Vals  between  the  elastic  «,  lateral  cartilage  ;  b,  anterior  portion  of  plantar 
^         .  cushion ;  c,  divided  part  of  flexor  pedis  perforans  ten- 

lamillie    and    the    horny        don ;  rf,  postero-lateral  ligaments  of  navicular  bone  ;  ^, 

,  -     .  horn  wall ;  ?« ,  horn  sole  ;  n,  white  line  ;  o,  horn  frog. 

wall   mcrease   towards 

the  heels  (Fambach),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  connection 
between  the  sensitive  and  horny  laminae  is  not  everywhere 
equally  firm,  but  becomes  less  so  towards  the  heels,  and,  there- 
fore, that  at  this  point  the  greatest  movement  might  theoreti- 
cally be  looked  for.  In  consequence  of  its  formation,  its  strong 
and  long  wall,  and  its  connection  with  the  pedal  bone,  the  toe 
would  be  expected  to  suffer  least  displacement  under  pressure, 
whilst  the  posterior  parts  of  the  hoof,  being  less  thick  and  less 
firmly  attached  to  the  bone,  would  yield  to  a  greater  extent. 
In  its  descent  the  os  pedis  tends  to  draw  the  lamime  backwards 
and  downwards,  so  that  their  inner  margins,  instead  of  pointing 
towards  the  centre  of  the  foot,  tend  to  point  towards  the  bulbs, 
a  condition  which  results  in  slightly  diminishing  the  height  of 
the  hoof,  diminishing  the  diameter  of  the  toe  and  lateral  parts 
of  the  coronet,  pressing  backwards  the  bulbs,  causing  the 
posterior  parts  of  the  sole  to  descend  and  the  heels  to  widen. 
Immediately  pressure  is  removed,  the  laminae  seek  to  return  to 
their  former  position  and  thus  restore  the  normal  state  of  the 
foot. 

At  the  time  when  the  fetlock  is  most  extended,  the  lateral 
cartilages  and  plantar  cushion  also  come  more  prominently 
into  play.  The  posterior,  i.e.,  the  broadest,  part  of  the  coronet 
bone  glides  backwards  and  downwards  between  the  lateral  car- 
tilages, thrusting  them  apart,  and  through  the  medium  of  the 


124 


THE    MECHANICAL    FUNCTIONS   OF   THE   FOOT. 


tendons  exercising  pressure  on  tlie  plantar  cushion.  As  tbe 
latter  is  closely  connected  with  the  lateral  cartilages  and  com- 
pletely fills  the  upper  depression  of  the  horny  frog,  it  tends  to 
drive  apart  the  quarters  and  to  cause  the  bulbs  to  swell,  while, 
as  the  horny  frog  now  rests  on  the  ground,  it  contributes  to  this 
dilating  effect.     In  the  shod  hoof,  however,  the  horny  frog  is  not 

always  in  contact  with  the 
ground,  or  at  least  not  through- 
out its  whole  extent ;  it  is, 
therefore,  easy  to  understand 
oc  why  the  expansion  of  the  hoof 
is  more  marked  at  tbe  coro- 
nary border  than  at  the  bear- 

FlG.  TO.^Vertical  cross  section  of  foot  seen  from    iug  SUlfaCC  of  the  liecls.        It 
behind  (this  section  has  been  made  nearer  the  ^,       ■,  i        ^i^i„4- 

heeis  than  fig.  69).  o,  posterior  part  of  plantar  must  also  DC  remembered  that 

cnshion ;    h,  median  ridge  of  frog;    c.  lateral    i         r?        t  i      j        ^ i.  4-^  1-.,. 

cartilage  ;  (7,  horn  wall ;  e,  lateral  face  of  frog;    hootS  Whcn  SllOQ  arS  apt  tO  DC 
/",  point  of  union  between  the  bars  and  frog.  t  j   4.x      £     ^        ^,,u. 

■ '  ^  very  dry,  and  the  frog  poorly 

developed,  or  diminished  by  excessive  paring  or  by  disease,  and, 
therefore,  dilatation  at  the  bearing  surface  is  often  difficult 
to  detect.  These  considerations  go  far  towards  explaining  the 
somewhat  common,  though  erroneous,  belief  that  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  heels  is  incapable  of  dilatation. 

All  parts  of  the  foot,  not  even  excepting  the  os  pedis,  are 
elastic,  although  not  to  the  same  extent.  The  os  pedis  is  least 
elastic  ;  then  comes  the  horny  wall,  horny  sole,  horny  frog, 
lateral  cartilage,  plantar  cushion,  coronary  band,  cutis,  and  sub- 
cutis.  The  posterior  half  of  the  hoof  allows  of  the  greatest 
change  in  form  ;  a  fact  which  explains  the  frequent  occurrence 
of  disease  of  this  portion  of  the  foot  under  the  influence  of 
severe  work,  neglect  of  the  hoof  and  faulty  shoeing. 

1.  Movement  at  the  Coronary  Border  (fig.  72). — While  the 
horse  stands  equally  on  all  four  feet,  the  anterior  and  lateral 
parts  of  the  coronary  border,  and  especially  the  points  opposite 
which  the  wall  forms  an  acute  angle  with  the  earth,  are  in  a 
condition  of  tension  and  incline  to  contract.  At  the  posterior 
part,  where  the  wall  forms  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  ground, 
there  is  a  tendency  to  dilatation.  When  considerable  weight 
is  placed  on  the  foot,  that  is,  during  backward  and  downward 
movement  of  the  fetlock,  a  slight  contraction  occurs  in  the 
anterior  parts  of  the  hoof,  and  extends  backwards  to  a  varying 


EXPANSION  AT  CORONARY  BORDER.  125 

distance.  In  the  region  of  the  heels,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
is  distinct  dilatation  ;  the  coronary  border  of  the  heels  bulges 
outwards,  a  condition  clearly  visible  in  hoofs  in  which  the 
coronary  border  is  well  curved.  Where,  however,  the  latter  is 
straight,  bulging  is  imperceptible  or  fails  to  occur.  The  bulbs 
of  the  heels  swell,  and  are  thrust  somewhat  backwards  and 
downwards.  If,  now,  the  fetlock  rises,  the  dilatation  of  the 
coronary  border  of  the  heels  disappears  in  a  forward  direction 
like  a  fluid  wave  and  with  a  rapidity  proportioned  to  the  speed 
of  ascent  of  the  fetlock  ;  while  the  contraction  of  the  lateral 
and  anterior  regions  of  the  coronary  border  is  replaced, 
immediately  the  foot  is  lifted,  by  slight  swelling  and  dilata- 
tion of  the  coronary  border  of  the  toe.  With  the  renewed 
sinking  of  the  fetlock  these  changes  of  form  are  repeated  in 
inverse  order.  Low,  Hat,  broad  hoofs  show^  these  changes  more 
distinctly  than  those  which  are  deep  and  upright.  Absolute 
rest  of  the  coronary  border  (at  least  while  the  animal  is  stand- 
ing on  the  foot)  is  inconceivable,  for  the  slightest  movement  of 
the  body  immediately  evokes  some  change  in  its  form.  The 
coronary  border  of  the  hoof  may  be  compared  with  an  exceed- 
ingly elastic  ring  which  yields  to  the  slightest  pressure  of  the 
body-weight,  dilatation  at  one  part  producing  a  corresponding 
retraction  at  another.  The  great  elasticity  of  this  ring  is  due 
to  the  perioplic  horn,  which  is  found  at  the  points  where  the 
greatest  movement  occurs — along  the  quarters  as  far  as  the 
bulbs,  and  at  the  toe  front.  Permanent  defects  in  the  position 
of  the  limbs  (such  as  knuckling,  etc.)  interfere  witli  the  normal 
function  of  the  coronary  border,  and  may  be  followed  by 
irregular  formation  and  distortion  of  the  hoof. 

2.  Movement  at  the  bearing  margin  or  ground  surface 
differs  somewhat  from  that  at  the  coronary  border.  In  front, 
and  as  far  as  the  centre  of  the  quarter,  no  distinct  change 
occurs ;  from  the  centre  of  the  quarter,  how^ever,  to  the  end  of 
the  bearing  surface  (fig.  71)  it  is  always  possible  to  demon- 
strate dilatation  in  sound,  unshod  hoofs,  especially  when  the 
horny  sole  and  horny  frog  are  supported.  The  amount,  of 
this  dilatation  varies,  with  the  weight  on  the  foot,  from  0*1  to 
1*5  millimetre  at  either  side,  while  it  is  also  greatly  depend- 
ant on  the  angle  formed  by  the  heel  with  the  ground.  In 
heels   which  converge  in  their  course  from   above  downwards 


126 


THE    MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS   OF  THE   FOOT. 


dilatation  is  slight,  and,  in  fact,  in  narrow-heeled  feet  con- 
traction may  replace  the  normal  expansion.  The  greatest 
obstacle  to  dilatation,  however,  is  shoeing,  inasmuch  as  it 
removes  the  counter  pressure  of  the  ground  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  and  prevents  the  horny  sole,  horny  frog,  and  bars 
performing  their  functions  in  the  same  degree  as  they  other- 
wise would.  In  horses  working  on  hard  roads  it  has  been 
recommended  to  employ  pads  of  rubber,  so  as  to  transmit  the 
counter  pressure  of  the  ground  to  the  sole  and  frog,  and  so 
promote  dilatation,  but  the  advocates  of  this  plan  overlook  the 
fact  that  pads  press  continuously  on  the  frog,  and  that  much  of 
their  beneficial  action  is  thus  lost. 


Figs.  71  and  72.— Right  fore-foot  seen  from  below  and  above.  The  dotted 
lines  show  the  changes  in  form  which  occiu"  at  the  moment  of  extreme 
extension  of  the  fetlock  joint. 


3.  Movements  of  the  Sole. — The  horny  sole  becomes  flatter 
under  the  body-weight,  most  distinctly  at  the  posterior  parts 
of  the  sole,  and  least  so  at  the  toe  and  towards  the  periphery. 
The  width  of  the  hoof  and  thickness  of  the  horny  sole  are  of 
considerable  importance  in  determining  the  extent  of  this 
movement,  the  descent  of  the  sole  being  greatest  towards  the 
heels  in  flat  and  spreading  hoofs.  A  proof  of  the  changes  in 
form  of  the  hoof  may  be  found  in  the  bright  and  sometimes 
excavated  friction  surfaces  at  the  heels  of  the  shoe.  Peters 
says  these  prove  the  existence  of  two  movements  of  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  hoof,  that  occurring  in  the  longitudinal  direction 


MOVEMENT   OF   BEARING   MARGIN   AND   SOLE.  127 

producing  the  deepest  depression.  One  result  of  this  friction 
is  the  wearing  away  of  the  bearing  surface  of  the  heel  on  the 
shoe  ;  the  loss  of  horn  may  amount  to  5  millimetres  or  more 
within  a  month. 

The  advantages  of  expansion  of  the  hoof  are  manifold.  1. 
The  yielding  of  the  tissues  protects  the  hoof  and  its  contents 
from  injury,  even  under  the  greatest  shocks.  2.  It  greatly 
diminishes  at  its  point  of  origin  the  concussion,  which  would 
otherwise  be  transmitted  to  the  body,  thus  assisting  the  action 
of  the  limb  and  adding  to  its  elasticity.  3.  It  favours  nutri- 
tive processes  in  the  parts  enclosed  by  tlie  horny  capsule,  and 
is  of  importance  in  the  production  of  the  hoof  itself.  Move- 
ment is  of  great  importance  in  insuring  sound  hoofs  and  the 
production  of  healthy  horn.  If  for  any  reason  movement  is 
lessened  or  prevented  the  hoof  suffers. 

Bearing  of  the  above  on  Practical  Shoeing. 

In  the  practice  of  shoeing,  the  chief  precaution  is  to  preserve 
normal  movement  in  the  foot.  We  know  that  shoeing,  by 
diminishing  or  preventing  contact  between  the  horny  sole  and 
frog  and  the  ground,  and  by  fixing  the  bearing  surface  of  the 
wall  to  an  inflexible  ring  of  iron,  checks  or  prevents  movement 
at  the  bearing  margin.  One  method  of  shoeing  which  avoids 
this  disadvantage  is  the  tip  or  modified  Charlier.  The  task  of 
the  farrier  is,  therefore,  to  so  form  and  affix  his  shoe  as  to 
minimise  ill  consequences.  In  paring  the  hoof  and  frog, 
intelligent  ideas  must  prevail.  The  counter  pressure  of  the 
ground  should,  if  possible,  be  preserved,  and  the  parts  allowed 
to  sustain  weight  each  in  its  appropriate  degree.  For  this 
reason  the  flat  shoe  is  the  most  natural.  For  diseased 
feet  the  bar  shoe  is  very  advantageous ;  it  unites  in  itself  all 
the  good  points  of  the  ordinary  shoe  with  few  of  its  disadvan- 
tages. It  arouses  the  normal  movements  of  the  foot  when 
in  abeyance,  regulates  them  when  disordered,  and,  if  properly 
used,  never  injures  but  always  improves  the  diseased  or  faulty 
hoof.  A  further  point  of  great  importance  is  a  horizontal 
bearing  surface  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  shoe,  equable  dis- 
tribution of  pressure  over  the  entire  circumference  of  the  wall, 
and  the  insertion  of  nails  in  the  anterior  half  of  the  shoe  alone. 


128  THE    MECHANICAL   FUNCTIONS    OF  THE   FOOT. 

As  pads  of  different  kinds  indirectly  convey  to  the  sole  and 
frog  the  counter  pressure  of  the  ground,  they  may  be  of  use  for 
horses  working  on  hard,  stony  ground,  or  the  pavement  of 
towns.  For  military  and  agricultural  horses  they  can  be 
dispensed  with. 


PART   11. 

THE  HORSE'S  FOOT  IN  RELATION 

TO  SHOEING. 


SEOTIOIsr   I. 
SHOEING  OF  HEALTHY  FEET. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HORSE-SHOES,  ETC. 

The  production  of  a  good  shoe  demands  intelligence,  skill  in 
the  use  of  tools,  and  the  ability  to  measure  accurately  with  the 
eye ;  while  the  farrier  who  desires  to  excel  must  possess  and 
constantly  apply  a  knowledge  of  the  formation  and  functions 
of  the  foot. 

1.  Material  for  the  Manufacture  of  Shoes. 

Wrought  Iron. — The  best  material  is  tough,  fine  grained, 
ductile,  wrought  iron,  which,  however,  must  retain  its  toughness 
when  hot  and  stand  the  test  of  fullering.  To  obtain  special 
durability  old  shoes  are  sometimes  employed,  from  one  and  a- 
half  or  two  of  which  is  produced  a  n-ew  shoe.  Such  are  more 
difficult  to  make,  but  being  '  steely '  last  considerably  longer. 

A  great  many  patterns  of  rolled  iron  are  on  the  market, 
from  which  shoes  for  light  horses  and  for  special  purposes  can 
be  made.  These  special  bars  when  of  English  manufacture 
are  usually  seated  on  the  hoof  surface ;  the  German  patterns 
are  flat.  The  ground  surface  of  some  is  roughened  by  projec- 
tions and  recesses,  arranged  either  cross-wise  or  length-wise  or 
in  both  directions.      Of  these  latter  there  are  many  different 

I 


130 


HORSE-SHOES,   ETC. 


patterns  (fig.  73),  but  they  are  now  comparatively  little  used  in 
England.  With,  perhaps,  the  exception  of  the  '  Grip '  (fig.  80) 
pattern,  bars  with  cross  depressions  are  liable  to  break  on  the 
outside  when  being  bent,  and,  as  a  rule,  shoes  prepared  from 
them  are  less  tough  than  tliose  made  from  ordinary  bar. 


Fig.  73.— Special  forms  of  rolled  bar  iron. 

English  manufacturers  have  always  been  noted  for  the  high 
quality  of  their  products  and  the  essentially  practical  nature  of 
the  improvements  they  have  introduced.  Below  are  figured  the 
sections  of  rolled  bars  most  widely  used. 

Eig.  74.   Rodway  section,  seated  on  hoof   surface,  made  in 

sizes  from  f  X  f  inch  to  1|-  x  -|  inch.     This  iron  was  introduced 

many  years  ago   by  Messrs   Phipson  &  Warden, 

the  patentees,  and  is  now  very  extensively  used. 

It  makes  suitable  shoes  for  all  animals  drawing 

light  vehicles  in  cities.      The  corrugated  surface 

gives  an  excellent  foothold,  which,  on  the  first  introduction  of 

the  section,  was  sought  to  be  increased  by  the  use  of  a  specially 

soft   iron.       Though    excellent    for    the   purpose 

mentioned,  this  section  is  not  sufficiently  durable 

for  horses  in  heavy  work. 

Eig.  75.    Single   fullered  iron,   made   in   sizes 
from  f  X  §  inch  to  1|-  X  -f  inch,  is  most  suitable 
for  light  harness  and  saddle  horses.     As  the  nails  are  scarcely 


Fig.  74.— ■Rod- 
way  bar.* 


Fig.  75.— Single 
fullered  bar.* 


SECTIONS   OF   ROLLED   BAR   IROX. 


131 


Fig.  76.— Bev- 
elled bar.* 


SO  secure  in  a  fullered  as  in  a  plain  stamped  shoe,  and  the  dura- 
bility is  less,  it  is  not  so  useful  for  horses  in  very  heavy  work. 

Fig.  76.  Plain  bevelled  bar  is  made  in  sizes  from  £  x  y"g- 
inch  to  1^  X  "I  inch,  and  is  used  for  making  plain 
stamped  shoes,  the  bevelling  saving  labour  in 
seatino-  out.  It  serves  for  shoes  for  all  horses  in 
medium  and  heavy  draught,  and  is  especially  use- 
ful for  defective  feet  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  plain 
shoes  can  be  fitted.  This  subject  will  be  referred  to  later  when 
speaking  of  stamped  shoes. 

Figs.  77  and  78.   Concave  iron  is  made  in  sizes  from 
inch  to  1-1-  X  |-  inch  and  is  used  for 
hacks  and  hunters,  occasionally  for 
carriage    horses,  which  must,  how- 
ever,   have     strong    feet    and    well 


;^^^,yyyyyx,^yyyyyyyy^j-yy^yj'^'' 


Figs.  77  and  78.— Concave  bar.* 

arched  soles.  Section  77  has  rather  less  hold  on  the  ground 
than  section  78,  but  wears  correspondingly  longer.  On  account 
of  the  shape  of  its  inner  margin,  the  latter  is  best  suited  for 
horses  which  foroe. 


Fic^.  79.   Plain  concave  bar,  sizes  from 


^  X  -L 

S  -^  2 


inch 


Fig.  79.— Plain 
concave  bar.* 


inch,  useful  for  ponies,  hacks,  and  hunters.      When 

nail  holes  are  stamped  in  this  iron  the  outer  wall 

becomes  vertical,  so  that  a  bevelled  edge  is  only  left 

inside.      Horses  shod  with  it  require,  on  account  of 

the  narrow  bearing  surface,  specially  strong  feet  with  arched 

sole  and  strong  wall. 

Fig.  80.  Corrugated  '  Grip  '  iron,  sizes  f  x  y^  inch  to  1^  x  ^ 
inch,  useful  for  horses  in  medium  draught. 
This  iron  is  less  liable  to  break  than  other 
sections  with  cross  depressions,  but  should 
only  be  used  on  strong  feet,  as  the  nails 
cannot  be  placed  just  where  needed,'  and 
(owing  to  the  projections)  cannot  be  so 
well  driven  home  as  in  plain  shoes. 

Fig.  81.   Charlier  steel,  sizes  from  -|  x 
For  Charlier  shoes  only. 

Figs.  82  and  83.  Pacing  plate  steel;  82, 
^  X  ^  inch  ;  83,  |-  X  g;  inch.  This  section 
used  only  for  actual  racing.  In  training,  light 
fullered  shoes  are  commonly  employed. 


Fig.  so.— Corru- 
gated '  Grip ' 
bar.* 


FIG.  81.  — 
Charlier 
steel  bar.* 


4 


inch  to  I 


1 


inch. 


Figs.  82  and  83  — 
Racing  plate  steel.* 


132  HORSE-SHOES,   ETC. 

Fig.  84.   Eacing  plate  iron,  -f  X  ^  inch.      Now  little  used, 
having  been   superseded  by  steel. 

Cast   Iron. — To   effect   a  saving   in  cost   many 
Fig.  84.— Racing  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  cast  shoes. 

plate  iron.' 

Up  to  the  present  no  real  success  has  been  recorded, 
although  shoes  have  been  produced  which  admit  of  being  shaped 
and  punched  at  a  red  heat,  if  special  precautions  be  observed. 
Even  the  best  cast  shoes  are  extremely  brittle  both  when  hot  and 
cold,  are  difficult  to  '  fit  out,'  wear  more  rapidly  than  wrought 
shoes,  give  a  bad  foothold,  and  expose  the  horse  to  the  danger 
of  slipping. 

Steel  is  fairly  ductile  and  malleable  and  possesses  the  power 
of  being  *  tempered,'  in  which  condition  it  is  harder  and  more 
elastic,  though  more  brittle,  than  before.  Certain  improve- 
ments recently  made  .in  the  manufacture  of  steel  seem  to  point, 
however,  to  the  possibility  of  using  it  more  extensively,  and  the 
Paris  General  Omnibus  Company  have  now  employed  it  for  some 
years  both  for  front  and  hind  shoes,  to  the  exclusion  of  iron.  In 
France  steel  of  the  kind  used  costs  less  than  iron.  It  is  said 
to  wear  with  perfect  regularity  until  the  shoes  are  extremely  thin. 
The  farriers  like  it,  and  can  turn  out  per  day  a  larger  number 
of  shoes  than  with  iron,  but  certain  precautions  are  needful  where 
it  is  employed  :  the  metal  must  not  be  overheated,  suddenly 
quenched,  nor  much  worked,  in  this  respect  differing  from  iron, 
which  is  improved  by  hammering.  The  present  opinion  in 
England  is  that  good  iron  is  sufficiently  durable,  and  that  steel, 
unless  of  a  low  grade,  is  too  difficult  to  work,  and  becomes  too 
smooth  in  use,  so  that  it  gives  no  foothold;  but  this  view  deserves 
reconsideration  after  the  successful  experiments  in  Paris. 

Aluminium,  being  one-third  the  weight  of  iron,  has  been 
used  with  success  for  racing  plates.  When  pure,  it  can  even  be 
worked  cold,  but  must  then  be  free  of  silicon,  which  renders  it 
brittle.  It  should  never  be  heated  above  a  dull  red.  To 
diminish  wear  of  the  shoe,  steel  nails,  with  soft  shanks  and 
hardened  heads,  are  used.  Chrome  aluminium,  being  very  hard, 
might  perhaps  be  used  with  advantage. 

Aluminium  bronze,  composed  of  aluminium  90  parts,  copper 
10  parts,  is  harder  than  the  pure  metal,  but  must  be  heated, 
being  difficult  to  work  cold.  Shoes  of  this  substance  are  there- 
fore cast,  but  have  not  been  found  sufficiently  durable. 


CHARACTERS   OF  SHOE — FORM.  133 

Aluminium  copper  can  bo  wrought  at  a  red  heat,  but  is  just 
as  heavy  as  iron. 

Although  aluminium  resists  the  action  of  acids  it  is  readily 
attacked  by  alkalies,  and  even  on  chalky  roads  wears  away  very 
quickly. 

Fhos]jlior  bronze  was  used  at  Brussels  in  1880.  The  shoes 
are  cast,  must  not  be  warmed,  are  softer  than  iron,  and  seem 
to  check  slipping.  The  difficulty  of  fitting  and  want  of  dura- 
bility are,  however,  against  their  extended  use. 

2.  Shoes  and  their  Properties. 

A  horse-shoe  is  an  iron  or  steel  rim  fastened  by  nails  to  the 
wall  and  covering  the  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent.  All  ordinary  shoes  present  two  branches,  an 
inner  and  an  outer.  The  anterior  part,  where  both  branches 
unite,  is  termed  the  toe.  The  upper  surface,  upon  which  the 
hoof  rests,  is  termed  the  foot  surface,  the  lower  is  the  ground 
surface.  The  fullering  is  on  the  ground  surface,  the  seating 
on  the  foot  surface.  Shoes  are  variously  named,  according  to 
the  objects  for  which  they  are  destined,  or  to  the  method  of 
manufacture ;  for  example,  fullered  shoes,  stamped  shoes,  flat 
shoes,  shoes  with  calkins,  summer  and  winter  shoes,  etc.,  of 
which  more  will  l^e  mentioned  below.  Another  division  is 
into  hand-made  and  machine-made  shoes,  Init  neither  of  these 
divisions  is  of  special  importance. 

Characters  of  the  Shoe. — These  may  be  divided  into  essential 
and  non-essential.  The  non-essential,  however,  such  as  calkins 
or  grips  in  winter,  may,  under  certain  circumstances,  become 
of  great  importance. 

(1)  Form. — A  good  shoe  should  respond  exactly  to  the 
shape  of  the  hoof  ;  the  farrier  mus't  therefore,  in  making  the 
shoe,  keep  clearly  in  his  mind  the  form  of  the  foot  for  which 
it  is  intended.  Front  and  hind,  left  and  ri^lit  feet  differ  in 
shape,  and  each  requires  a  shoe  with  certain  special  modifica- 
tions (figs.  85,  86,  and  87).  Too  much  stress,  therefore,  cannot 
be  laid  on  the  fact  that  the  farrier  must  make  himself  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  normal  form  of  the  bearing  surface  and 
fashion  his  shoe  accordingly.  It  is  always  well  to  make  the 
shoes  in  pairs,   that  is,  a  left  and  a  right. 


134 


HORSE-SHOES,  ETC. 


(2)  Breadth  and  Thickness. — The  breadth  of  the  shoe 
depends,  firstly,  on  the  form  of  the  hoof,  whether  it  is  narrow 
or  wide  ;  secondly  (but  the  point  is  very  important),  on  the 


Fig.  85. — Right  front  shoe  seen 
from  l)elo\v. 


Fig.  86.— The  same  seen  from  above. 
rt,  bearing  surface ;  b,  seated  sur- 
face. 


thickness  of  the  wall.  As  a  general  rule,  twice  the  thickness 
of  the  wall,  including  the  white  line,  will  be  sufhcieut.  The 
breadth  of   the  toe  will,  therefore,  be   from  f  to  1-J;  inches. 

Wide  hoofs  require  a  broader 
shoe  than  narrow  ones.  As 
the  wall  varies  in  thickness  at 
different  points  and  in  different 
feet,  the  shoe  also  varies,  being 
broader  at  the  toe  than  at  the 
heels ;  and  when  intended  for 
fore-feet,  being  broader  than  for 
hind.  For  special  purposes, lil\,e 
racing,  very  narrow  shoes  may 
be  required,  whilst  for  work  on 
stone-paved  streets  the  breadth 
may  advantageously  be  in- 
creased. In  Paris,  where  the 
shoes,  for  economical  reasons,  are  made  very  narrow,  the  feet 
are  in  general  exceptionally  bad.  Excessive  breadth,  however, 
increases  the  risk  of  slipping  on  muddy  or  frozen  roads.  The 
thickness  of  the  shoe  also  varies  according  to  the  size,  weight, 
and  duty  of  the  horse  and  to  the  kind  of  ground  on  which  it 


Fig.  ST.— Left  hind  shoe  seen  from  above. 


CHARACTERS  OF  SHOE — SURFACES  AND  BORDERS.      135 

works,  and  may  vary  from  ^  up  to  ^  of  an  inch  or  even  more. 
As  a  rule,  shoes  should  be  of  such  thickness  that  on  a  horse 
with  sound  limbs  and  doing  ordinary  work  they  wear  for  four 
weeks.  Generally,  the  shoe  is  made  of  an  even  thickness 
throughout,  though  this  is  subject  to  exceptions,  —  fiat  shoes 
being  sometimes  thicker  at  the  toe,  sometimes  at  the  heels. 
The  necessity  for  such  special  shoes  must  be  judged  of  by  the 
w^ear  of  the  old  shoes. 

Before  thickening  any  portion  of  a  shoe  it  is  well  to  recall 
that,  cceteris  paribus,  undue  thickness  at  any  point  means  un- 
equal tread,  that  thickening  one  side  of  the  shoe  only  transfers 
the  wear  to  the  other,  that  if  one  side  has  to  be  raised  it  is 
usually  advisable  to  narrow  it  from  side  to  side  so  as  to 
preserve  an  equal  balance  of  weight  between  the  two  sides, 
and  lastly,  that  the  upper  surface  of  the  shoe  must  always 
be  flat,  i.e.,  the  projection  must  appear  on  the  ground  and  not 
on  the  foot  surface  of  the  shoe.  As  a  rule,  it  is  inadvisable  to 
attempt  correcting  excessive  local  wear  by  thickening  the  shoe 
at  the  point  worn  ;  by  far  the  better  course  is  to  weld  in  a 
piece  of  steel,  or  to  give  more  cover,  which  increases  the  dura- 
bility of  the  part  without  disturbing  the  correct  relative  heights 
of  the  two  sides  of  the  foot. 

(3)  Surfaces  and   Borders. — The    upper  or  hoof  surface  of 
the  shoe  may  be  divided  into  a  bearing  surface  and  a  seated 
surface.      The  bearing  surface  (fig.   88,  a),  or  that  part  of  the 
shoe   which  comes  in  direct  contact  with 
the  wall,  must  be  absolutely  horizontal  and 
broad  enough  to  cover  the  bearing^  surface 
of  the  wall,  including  the  white  line,  and  a 
narrow  rin<>-  of  the  outer  circumference  of  i^^ig.  ss -Transverse  section 

c"  of  a  fore  shoe  through  cue 

the  horny  sole.      In  makino-  shoes  it  is  cer-     o;  the  naii  holes ;  natural 

•^  "  size,    a,  bearing  surface ; 

tainlv    not     always     possible    to    know     how        ^  seated  surface ;  e.fuUei. 

<j        r  ^  ijig ;  f^  iiaii  hole. 

broad  the  bearing  surface  of  the  wall  may 
be,  but  this  is  not  so  very  important,  because  the  bearing  surface 
of  the  shoe  can  very  easily  be  made  a  little  broader  or  narrower 
when  fitting.  Shoes  for  heavy  horses  are  always  made  with 
a  rather  broader  bearing  surface  than  those  for  light  horses. 
The  seated  part  of  the  surface  (fig.  88,  h),  which  is  opposed  to 
the  horny  sole,  without,  however,  touching  it,  is  more  or  less 
hollowed  out  accordincr  to  the  condition  of  the  sole,  but  must 


136  HORSE-SHOES,   ETC. 

always  be  quite  distinct  from  the  bearing  surface.  Shoes  for 
liorses  with  very  concave  soles  require  little  seating,  and  it  is 
only  necessary  to  carefully  round  off  the  inner  margin.  This  is 
usually  the  case  in  hind  shoes  (fig.  87). 

The  object  of  this  rounding  ofl'  is  to  prevent  pressure  by  the 
shoe  against  the  sole.  The  seating  of  the  hoof  surface  of  front 
shoes  need  not  be  deep ;  it  is  sufficient  if  it  amount  to,  say,  -| 
of  an  incli ;  its  width  varies  from  a  quarter  up  to  a  half  the  width 
of  the  entire  upper  surface.  A  greater  amount  of  seating  than 
this  is,  in  shoes  for  sound  hoofs,  rather  injurious  than  useful. 
It  is,  however,  absolutely  necessary  to  see  that  the  inner  upper 
edge  of  the  shoe  is  rounded  ofl'.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in 
many  districts  shoes  having  an  absolutely  level  hoof  surface 
are  used,  though  the  ground  surface  is  recessed  or  deepened  in 
some  other  way.  This  shows  that,  if  the  paring  of  the  foot 
and  the  otlier  details  of  shoeing  be  carefully  performed,  no 
injury  results.  Shoes  with  recessed  or  dished  ground  surface 
are  not,  as  is  often  supposed,  at  all  new.  They  were  known 
at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  (see  A  Neiv  System 
of  Shoeing  Horses,  by  J.  Goodwin,  London,  1820).  Many 
different  forms  of  shoe  with  recessed   ^roimd  surfaces  exist. 

The  under  or  ground  surface  of  the  shoe  exhibits  the  nail 
holes,  with  or  without  fullering.  The  fullering,  or  nail  furrow, 
is  a  groove  near  the  outer  border  of  the  shoe,  through  which 
the  nail  holes  are  stamped ;  sometimes  it  extends  from  one 
heel  to  the  other,  sometimes  it  is  interrupted.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  toe  and  ^  to  £  of  an  inch  of  the  heels  are  plain.  The 
fuller  should  extend  through  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  iron,  which  will,  therefore,  also  determine  its 
breadth  (tig.  88,  c).  To  ensure  proper  stamping  of  the  nail  holes 
both  walls  of  the  fuller  must  be  oblique.  When  the  inner 
wall  is  perpendicular  (fig.  89,  1)  to  the  surface  of  the  shoe  the 
nail  holes  are  apt  to  point  inwards.  The  outer  border  of  the 
fuller  should  never  be  sharp,  and,  considering  the  deeper  posi- 
tion of  the  nail  holes  at  the  toe,  must  be  somewhat  wider 
towards  the  front.  Although  fullering  is  not  absolutely 
necessary,  as  horses  work  very  well  in  stamped  shoes,  yet  it 
is  certainly  a  great  advantage,  for,  firstly,  it  lessens  the  weight 
of  the  shoe ;  secondly,  on  account  of  its  roughening  the  ground 
surface,  it  somewhat  diminishes  slipping ;  thirdly,  it  gives  the 


FORM   OF   GROUND-SUEFACE   OF   SHOE. 


137 


shoe  a  greater  range  of  usefulness ;  and  fourthly,  it  facilitates 
the  renewal  of  nails. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  a  shoe  which  is  intended 
for  fullering  must  be  forged  with  an  oblif[ue  outer  border,  as 
otherwise  the  outer  under  edge  would  be  driven  too  far  out- 
wards by  the  fuller. 

Opinions,  both  of  authors  and  practitioners,  vary  greatly  as 
to  the  form  of  the  outer  border  of  the  shoe.  Some  believe 
that  the  border  of  the  shoe,  when  the  latter  is  in  position, 
should  run  obliquely  downwards  and  outwards,  as  though  it 


FiU.  89.— Cross  sections  of  four  fullered  shoes.  1.  Fullering  bad, 
inner  wall  being  too  upright.  2.  Good.  [This  is  a  rolled  sec- 
tion of  iron.  In  hand-made  shoes  the  bottom  of  fullering  is 
sharper.]  3.  Faulty ;  the  fullering  being  too  broad  for  its 
depth.    4.  Very  faulty  ;  inner  wall  inclining  inwards. 

formed  a  prolongation  of  the  hoof.  Others  are  of  opinion  that 
it  should  be  rounded  ofit',  as  a  round  border  is  best  calculated  to 
diminish  brushing  and  other  like  injuries.  As  a  rule,  the  outer 
border  should  run  downwards  and  inwards,  that  is,  the  circum- 
ference of  the  shoe  should  be  slightly  smaller  at  the  ground 
than  at  the  hoof  surface ;  otherwise  the  width  may  cause 
striking,  the  shoe  will  be  heavier,  and  there  will  be  increased 
danger  of  its  becoming  loose,  or  even  being  cast  in  soft,  heavy 
ground.  Exceptions,  nevertheless,  occur,  and  will,  later,  be 
dealt  with  in  the  chapter  on  Fitting.  The  inner  border  should 
be  smooth  and  rounded  off  above  and  below  or  dished. 


138  ITOESE-SHOES,   ETC. 

(4)  Nail  Holes  (figs.  86  and  88,  d). — The  form,  direction,, 
distribution  and  number  of  the  nail  holes  are  very  important 
and  deserve  careful  consideration.  The  fact  must  be  carefully 
borne  in  mind  that  the  nail  should  not  lose  its  hold  until  the- 
shoe  is  virtually  worn  out,  and,  therefore,  the  nail  is  formed 
with  a  pyramidal  head  and  the  shoe  with  a  deep  fuller,  through 
whicli  the  nail  holes  are  stamped.  The  fullering  must,  there- 
fore, correspond  with  the  form  of  the  nail  head,  so  that  the  one^ 
exactly  fits  the  other,  and  necessarily  the  fullering  tool  must 
correspond  in  section  to  the  shape  of  the  head  of  the  nail. 

The  shoe  should  be  fastened  with  the  smallest  number  of 
nails  which  will  hold  it  firmly,  and  it  has  been  stated  by  Miles 
that  under  some  circumstances  even  three  nails  are  sufficient 
to  give  a  good  hold.  Each  nail  makes  a  hole,  which  weakens 
the  wall.  Experience  teaches  that  six  nail  holes  are  sufficient, 
at  least  in  front  shoes,  and  that  only  very  large  and  heavy 
shoes,  and  hind  shoes  especially,  require  as  many  as  seven  or 
eight.  A  well-fitted  shoe  is  very  easy  to  affix,  but  a  faulty 
shoe  may  be  difficult  to  secure  even  with  eight  or  ten  nails. 
The  best  formed  nail  holes,  however,  may  be  very  bad  indeed 
if  badly  placed,  and  it  is  imperative  to  remember  that  nail 
holes  should  be  so  disposed  that  nails  driven  through  them 
with  reasonable  care  will  enter  sound  horn,  will  not  injure 
the  soft  parts,  will  not  split  the  horny  wall,  and  will  not 
diminish  the  elasticity  of  the  hoof.  To  meet  these  demands 
the  nail  holes  must,  when  the  shoe  is  in  position,  correspond 
with  the  white  line  at  the  point  where  the  latter  comes  in 
contact  with  the  bearino-  surface  of  the  wall.  In  a  well-formed 
shoe,  therefore,  the  nail  holes  appear  close  to  the  inner  border 
of  the  bearing  surface  (fig.  88,  d).  The  distance  of  the  nail 
holes  from  the  outer  margin  of  the  shoe  must  vary  according 
to  the  thickness  of  the  horny  wall.  When  they  are  so  far 
from  the  outer  margin  that  the  nail  tends  to  penetrate  the 
horny  sole,  the  nail  holes  are  '  coarse ' ;  when,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  approach  the  outer  margin  of  the  shoe  so  that  the 
nail  passes  directly  into  the  outer  sheath  of  the  horny  wall,  they 
are  '  fine.'  In  either  case,  the  holes  are  improperly  punched  or 
the  shoe  is  '  badlv  holed '  if  intended  for  a  normal  foot.  When 
the  holes,  though  in  good  position,  point  too  obliquely  inwards, 
and,  therefore,  give  the  nail  a  wrong  direction,  the  shoe  is  also 


NAIL-HOLES — FORM   AND   TOSITIOX. 


139 


described  as  badly  holed.  Each  hole  must  be  funnel-shaped, 
clean  and  open.  In  the  fore-feet  the  nail  holes  can  only  be 
placed  in  the  anterior  half  of  the  shoe  without  injury  to  the 
elasticity  of  the  foot,  and  the  last  nail  hole  in  the  outer  quarter 
of  the  shoe  should  not  be  more  than  vV  to  %■  of  an  inch  behind 
an  imaginary  transverse  line  dividing  the  shoe  into  two  equal 
parts ;  that  in  the  inner  branch  as  close  as  possible  to  it.  This 
division  of  the  foot  into  an  anterior  and  posterior  half  responds 
to  the  varying  thickness  of  the  wall  and  to  the  dilatation 
which  occurs  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  foot.  The  direction 
of  the  holes  must  vary  according  to  the  varying  obliquity  of 
the  wall  of  the  foot.  The  nail  holes  of  the  toe  should,  there- 
fore, be  directed  obliquely  inwards,  the  more  lateral  less  so,  and 
the  nail  holes  of  the  quarter  should  point  almost  directly  up- 
wards. In  contracted  feet  it  may  in  fact  be  needful  to  even 
give  the  nail  holes  of  the  quarter  a  slight  cant  outwards. 
Further,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  less  thickness  of 
the  inner  horny  wall  and  the  position  of  the  shoe  on  the  foot 
call  for  Jincr  imncliing  in  the  inner  limb  of  the  shoe.* 

The  nail  holes  of  the  hmd  shoe  may  be  distributed  through 
the  two  anterior  thirds  of  the  shoe,  though  the  nail  holes  of  the 
toe  should  be  wider  apart  (fig.  87).  The  hind  foot  has,  in  com- 
parison with  the  fore,  stronger 
quarters  and  is  less  exposed  to 
disease.  The  extension  of  the  nail 
holes  into  the  posterior  half  of 
the  shoe  is  justified  by  practice. 
Were  it  neglected,  the  shoe  would 
soon  become  loose  or  lost  during^ 
work  in  heavy  ground.  This  prac- 
tice is  especially  necessary  in  shoe- 
ing military  horses,  either  during 
manccuvres  or  in  war.  The  offi- 
cial German  military  shoe,  accord- 
ino"  to  its  size,  contains  from  six- 
teen  to  twenty  nail  holes  (fig.  90) ;  not,  however,  for  the  purpose 

*  In  this  connection  it  is  surprising  to  find  veterinary  surgeons  (who  are  also 
owners  of  forges)  still  gravely  disputing  as  to  whether  nail  holes  sliould  correspond 
in  inclination  to  the  wall  of  the  foot  or  be  perfectly  perpendicular.  See  Veter- 
inary Record,  Nos.  404  and  405,  1896,  and  Veterinarian  (Reports  of  Veterinary 
Medical  Societies),  Fourth  Series,  No.  497,  May  1896,  p.  181. 


Fig.  90. — German  military  shoe  for 
fore-feet. 


140  HORSE-SHOES,   ETC. 

of  allowing  more  nails  to  be  driven,  but  only  to  permit  of 
selecting  a  better  position.  Contraction  of  the  hoof  need  not 
be  feared  if  the  horse  has  plenty  of  movement. 

(5)  Clips  are  small, flattened,  upward  projections  from  the  outer 
border  of  tlie  shoe.  They  are '  drawn '  from  the  edge  on  the  anvil. 
The  base  of  every  clip  must  be  strong  and  sound.  Above,  the  clip 
becomes  thinner,  so  that  it  may  be  moulded  to  the  form  of  the 
wall  by  a  few  taps  of  the  hammer.  To  prevent  injury  of 
soft  parts,  the  free  border  of  the  clip  should  be  bevelled  off. 
Clips  on  hind  shoes  should  be  stronger  tlian  those  on  fore.  In 
light  shoes  the  clips  need  only  be  as  high  as  the  shoe  is  thick, 
but  in  shoes  for  heavy  van  horses  they  may  advantageously  be 
made  liigher. 

According  to  their  position  we  distinguisli  toe,  quarter,  and 
heel  clips.  In  eitlier  case  the  object  is  to  strengthen  the  hold 
of  the  shoe,  or,  rather,  to  prevent  the  shoe  shifting  in  position. 
Wliere  the  horse  wears  unequally,  a  tendency  always  exists  for 
the  shoe  to  be  displaced  towards  the  side  which  comes  last  in 
contact  with  the  ground.  The  clips  should,  therefore,  be  placed 
on  the  opposite  side.  Only  a  toe  clip  is  necessary  when  the 
tread  is  level.  In  the  greater  number  of  cases  the  shoe  is  dis- 
placed inwards,  for  which  reason  the  outer  rim  of  the  shoe  is 
often  provided  with  a  quarter  clip.  Heel  clips  may  sometimes 
be  required  when  a  horse  overreaches  and  cuts,  or  when  the  feet 
are  excessively  broken. 

In  forming  the  heels  of  a  flat  shoe,  it  is  advisable  to  cut  off 
each  heel  with  the  half-round  cutter  in  such  a  way  that  the 
posterior  margin  runs  downwards  and  forwards,  and  the  outer 
angle  of  the  heel  is  moderately  rounded  off. 

3.  FoRaiNG  THE  Shoe. 

With  slight  modifications  the  method  of  forging  hereafter 
described  is  applicable  to  both  light  and  heavy  shoes,  and  has 
the  advantage  of  producing  a  clean,  workmanlike,  and  elegant 
shoe.  The  method  of  forging  seen  in  France,  where  the  shoe 
is  formed  under  three  hammers  and  with  only  one  heat,  is  also 
practised  in  Austria  and  South  and  West  Germany,  but  although 
we  admire  the  dexterity  displayed,  we  cannot  regard  the  system 
itself  as  worthy  of  imitation,  the  results  being  very  imperfect. 


&5 

O 

O 


To  face  f.  141.] 


TOOLS   FOR   FORGING   SHOE.  141 

The  fireman's  tools  (see  Plate)  consist  of  a  turning  hammer, 
boss  hammer,  tongs,  stamps,  fullers,  pritchels,  drawing  knife, 
footrule,  heel  cutters,  heel  crease,  compass  (with  or  without 
set-screw),  concave  tools,  anvil  and  vice.  A  very  few  words 
on  each  must  suffice. 

The  turning  hammer  has  one  Hat  and  one  convex  face,  weighs 
about  3^  lbs.,  and  is  used  for  turning  the  shoe  :  hence  its  name. 
The  boss  hammer  is  about  the  same  weight,  and  is  used  for 
drawing  clips  and  fitting  on  the  shoes.  Many  farriers  use  only 
a  turnino'  hammer. 

The  tongs  are  used  for  holding  the  iron  whilst  making  the 
shoe,  and  several  sizes  are  required  to  take  different  sizes  of 
iron. 

Stamps  are  used  to  make,  and  pritchels  to  clear  out,  the 
nail  holes.  The  stamp,  having  a  comparatively  obtuse  point, 
forms  the  countersunk  part  of  the  nail  hole  which  accommo- 
dates the  nail  head,  the  pritchel  completes  the  operation,  and 
finishes  that  part  of  the  nail  hole  in  which  lies  the  '  neck '  of 
the  nail.  Fullers  form  the  groove  or  '  crease  '  around  the  edafe 
of  the  shoe,  and  should  correspond  in  section  to  the  shape  of 
the  nail-head. 

The  fireman  uses  a  drawing  knife  only  to  cut  out  the  clip- 
hole  at  the  toe,  and  to  press  the  shoe  home  when  fitting  it  to 
the  foot.  The  knife  drawn  indicates  very  clearly  how  this  is 
done. 

A  footrule  is  sometimes  useful  in  measurino-  the  width  of 
foot  preparatory  to  cutting  iron  for  a  shoe,  and  in  measuring 
the  length  of  iron  required.  A  compass  often  replaces  the 
rule.  When  roughing,  the  width  of  the  shoe  at  the  nail  holes  is 
measured,  the  set-screw  turned,  and  a  permanent  record  ob- 
tained for  fixing  the  exact  width  of  the  shoe  at  the  heels. 

The  purpose  of  heel-cutters  is  sufficiently  explained  by  their 
name.  Several  sizes  are  needed  for  different  work.  The  heel 
crease  is  used  after  the  heel  is  cut  off;  it  finishes  the  work  and 
saves  labour  in  filing  up  the  shoe. 

'  Concave  tools '  are  used  to  give  the  proper  bevel  to  the 
concave  shoe.  For  good  work  they  are  very  necessary.  Three 
sizes  (-g-  inch,  ^  inch,  and  1  inch)  are  required. 

The  anvil  is  of  the  form  shown,  weighs  from  2^  to  3  cwt., 
and  is  firmly  fixed  to  a  block  of  wood  deeply  sunk  in  the  ground, 


142  HOESE-SHOES,   ETC. 

or,  nowadays,  is  more  frequently  carried  on  an  iron  anvil-block 
of  specially  strong  construction.  The  face  of  the  anvil  should 
be  about  27  inches  from  the  ground  and  slightly  tilted  away 
from  the  side  at  which  the  fireman  works.  The  anvil  itself 
consists  of  a  body  and  beak.  The  body  has  two  holes 
pierced  at  the  end  furthest  from  the  beak,  one  square,  the  other 
round.  The  square  hole  takes  the  concave  tools,  large-sized 
heel  cutters,  and  the  heel  crease,  etc. ;  the  fireman  works  over 
it  when  pritchelling  the  nail  holes  of  large  shoes.  The 
round  hole  is  for  small  heel  cutters  and  for  workino-  over  when 
punching  holes  for  cogs,  screws,  etc.  The  body  of  the 
anvil  is  of  iron,  the  working  surface  being  formed  of  a  thick 
plate  of  well-tempered  steel,  welded  on.  The  edges  should  not 
be  too  sharp,  especially  at  the  points  where  clips  are  usually 
drawn,  as  the  clip  may  be  cut  off. 

The  vice  holds  the  shoe  when  being  hot-rasped  or  '  filed  up.' 
In  some  instances,  as  when  it  is  necessary  to  thicken  up  the 
heels,  work  can  be  done  in  the  vice  which  could  scarcely  be 
effected  on  the  anvil.  The  vice  also  comes  into  play  for  holding 
the  shoe  when  holes  are  being  tapped  to  receive  frost  screws. 

For  a  description  of  other  tools  used  in  shoe-making,  see 
p.  203,  where  the  doorman's  tools  are  described  together. 

Though  superfluous  to  the  working  farrier,  a  few  words  on 
managing  the  fire  may  not  be  altogether  out  of  place.  On 
commencing  work  the  fire  is  lit  with  a  few  shavings  or  a  bundle 
of  straw.  Immediately  a  good  body  of  red  embers  is  produced, 
the  doorman  inserts  a  piece  of  -J-inch  round  iron  (or  the  farrier's 
poker)  in  the  nozzle  of  the  tue-iron,  and,  whilst  keeping  the 
bellows  gently  acting,  begins  ramming  damp  coals  around  this 
and  over  the  surface  of  the  back  plate  with  a  sledge,  fire-tongs, 
or  other  heavy  object  until  a  firm  coherent  mass  about  9  inclies 
in  thickness  and  5  in  height  is  produced  (the  '  back  ').*  He 
then  builds  up  the  fire,  which  extends  beyond  the  back,  with 
dry  coal,  and  inserts  the  bars  of  iron,  which  have  been  cut  mean- 
while by  the  fireman  and  second  doorman,  in  pairs  in  the  fire. 
As  a  rule,  a  sjood  workman  will  be  content  with  six  bars  in  the 
fire  at  one  time,  each  pair  being  laid  horizontally,  alongside, 
and  as  close  as  possible  to  the  preceding  pair.  The  bars 
inserted  are  at  once  covered  with  dry  coal,  the  bellows  worked 

*  Note. — If  tlie  '  back '  he.  made  up  overnight  it  will  last  much  longer. 


5-. 


So    "i-^ 


[To  face  p.  142. 


FORGING    A   FORE-SHOE.  143 

vigorously,  and  once  the  fire  is  found  to  be  going  well  a  few 
shovelsful  of  damp  coal  are  scattered  over  all.  During  the 
time  the  first  doorman  is  preparing  the  fire  and  heating  the 
bars  the  fireman  and  second  doorman  will  have  cut  a  couple  of 
dozen  lenoths  of  iron. 

Forging  a  Fore  Shoe. — As  soon  as  the  first  pair  of  bars  is  seen 
to  have  reached  a  regular  bright  cherry-red  heat,  the  fireman 
grasps  a  bar  in  his  tongs  and,  withdrawing  it,  lays  one  end  on 
the  head  of  a  sledge  held  by  doorman  No.  1,  near  the  heel  of 
the  anvil,  and,  allowing  it  to  rest  lengthwise  on  the  anvil,  strikes 
with  his  turning  liammer  near  the  centre  in  turn  with  the 
second  doorman,  who,  of  course,  uses  a  sledge.  He  then  lays 
it  edge  up  on  the  flat  of  the  anvil,  and  the  two  doormen,  strik- 
ing alternately,  and  w^orking  from  toe  to  heel,  draw  down  the 
bar  and  partly  form  (bend)  the  shoe.  The  bar  is  then  trans- 
ferred to  the  beak  of  the  anvil,  and,  still  working  from  toe  to 
heel,  is  still  more  drawn  down,  while,  by  reason  of  the  manner 
in  w^hich  it  is  held,  the  foot  surface  is  fashioned  rather  wider 


Fig.  91.— Partly  completed  fore  shoe. 

than  the  ground  surface,  to  allow  for  subsequent  dilatation  at 
the  ground  surface  caused  by  punching  nail  holes.  Shoes 
to  be  afterwards  fullered  must  be  made  much  wider,  as  the 
fullering  drives  out  the  edge  of  the  shoe  to  a  considerable 
extent.  It  is  at  this  staae,  when  the  shoe  is  transferred  to  the 
beak,  that  it  acquires  the  form  necessary  for  a  right  or  left  foot 
as  the  case  may  be.  By  turning  his  hand  outwards,  so  that 
the  knuckles  come  upwards,  the  fireman  gives  the  bevel  for  a 
light-sided   shoe ;    on    the   other   hand,  by  turning   the   hand 


144  HORSE-SHOES,   ETC. 

inwards,  with  the  thumb  above  and  the  knuckles  downwards,  a 
left-sided  shoe  is  started.  Though  difficult  to  describe,  the 
manoeuvre  will  be  easily  understood  on  grasping  a  pair  of  tongs 
and  imagining  the  results  of  turning  the  hand  in  eitlier  of  the 
directions  described.  In  bending-  the  shoe  at  this  stage  the 
curve  must  be  exaggerated,  as  the  subsequent  'seating-out' 
tends  to  straighten  the  iron  once  more.  In  making  a  fullered 
shoe  a  good  workman  will,  while  working  on  the  teak,  diminish 
not  only  the  thickness,  but  also  the  breadth,  of  the  toe,  leaving 
it  slightly  thinner  than  the  quarter.  The  width  is  restored  in 
seating-out,  as  the  seating  is  more  pronounced  at  the  toe  than 
elsewhere.  We  have  italicised  the  words  while  working  on  the 
teak,  because,  although  often  omitted  nowadays,  owing  to  its 
difficulty,  it  is  only  at  this  stage  that  such  thinning  can  properly 
be  performed. 

From  the  beak  the  shoe  is  returned  to  the  flat  of  the  anvil 
and  seated  out  to  within  2  or  ;|  inch  from  the  heel  under  the 
rounded  ends  of  the  two  sledge-hammers.  If  needful,  the  shoe 
is  next  fullered,  commencing  at  the  toe  and  terminating  at  the 
heel.  The  '  crease '  is  applied  yV  to  J-  of  an  inch  from  the 
outer  margin,  according  to  the  size  of  the  shoe.  Doorman  No. 
1  then  leaves  to  prepare  the  next  bar,  and  No.  2  strikes  for 
the  fireman  who  stamps  the  nail  holes.  These  are  formed  so 
as  to  correspond  in  direction  with  the  inclination  of  the  wall, 
and  not  vertically  as  stated  by  certain  writers.  The  fireman 
then  pritchels  the  nail  holes,  removes  the  bulgings  (due  to 
stamping  holes)  from  the  outside  of  the  shoe,  finishes  the  seat- 
ing-out, leaving  the  surface  smooth  and  even,  and  returns  the 
shoe  to  the  fire.  The  inner  branch  of  the  shoe  is  formed  in 
a  precisely  similar  way,  though  fullering  takes  place  in  the 
reverse  direction. 

Forging  a  Hind  Shoe. — In  forging  a  hind  shoe  the  iron  is 
bent  as  above  and  transferred  to  the  beak  of  the  anvil,  on 
which  the  quarter  is  drawn  down  under  the  two  sledges, 
assisted  by  the  fireman's  hammer.  The  toe  and  heel  must, 
however,  be  left  of  full  strength,  the  former  on  account  of  the 
toe  being  the  part  most  exposed  to  wear,  and  the  latter  because, 
to  secure  a  sound  and  strong  shoe,  the  calkin  must  be  turned 
over  in  the  full  thickness  of  the  iron.  Many  firemen  draw 
down  the  heel  excessively  and  have  then  to  turn  over  a  great 


FORGING   A   FORE   SHOE.  145 

length  of  iron  to  form  the  calkin  and  to  bring  it  to  the  proper 
thickness  under  the  sledge.  This  is  bad  practice  for  two 
reasons :  it  is  wasting  energy  to  draw  down  the  bar  and  then 
'  upset  it '  again,  and  the  fibre  of  the  turned  down  portion 
cuts  through  and  weakens  that  of  the  branch  of  the  shoe  just 


Fig.  92.— Partly  completed  hind  shoe. 


where  it  should  be  strongest,  i.e.,  just  at  the  commencement  of 
the  calkin.  In  turning  down  the  calkin  the  shoe  is  laid  fiat 
on  the  anvil  and  steadied  by  the  doorman  placing  on  it  his 
sledge  while  the  actual  bending  is  done  by  the  fireman  with 
his  turning  hammer.  Another  fault  of  the  bad  workman  is 
not  to  turn  over  his  calkin  square,  and  thus  to  render  the  inner 
margin  of  the  shoe  considerably  shorter  than  the  outer. 

The  shoe  is  now  returned  to  the  anvil,  ground  surface 
upwards,  and  the  calkin  flattened  down  under  the  turning 
hammer  and  sledge.  The  fireman  then  '  takes  out  the 
hammer-marks '  on  the  beak  of  the  anvil  at  the  same  time 
that  he  straightens  the  shoe,  if,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  toe  be 
too  round,  and  also  rounds  the  quarter  or  heel  to  the  necessary 
degree.  The  better  the  workman  the  less  of  this  work  will  be 
needed.  The  nail  holes  are  next  stamped,  the  outside  toe 
nail  hole  being  stamped  rather  '  fine  '  {i.e.,  near  the  outer 
margin  of  the  shoe)  but  obliquely,  and  each  succeeding  nail 
hole  being  rather  '  coarser  '  but  more  upright  than  its  pre- 
decessor. The  inside  nail  holes  are  stamped  somewhat  finer, 
but  at  about  the  same  inclination,  or  perhaps  a  trifle  more 
upright  than  the  outer. 

In  making  a  double-heeled  shoe  the  above   process  is  re- 

K 


146  HORSE-SHOES,   ETC. 

peated,  the  nail  holes  being,  however,  stamped  in  inverse  order, 
but  in  making  a  wedge- heeled  shoe,  after  forming  the  outside 
as  before,  the  second  operation  is  as  follows :  the  iron  is  first 
turned  on  edge  on  the  flat  of  the  anvil  and  the  wedge  formed, 
after  whicli  the  quarter  is  drawn  either  on  the  beak  or  flat  as 
may  be  preferred. 

In  making  a  shoe  for  cutting  or  interfering,  the  second  opera- 
tion is  all  conducted  on  the  beak.  It  commences  by  slightly 
drawing  the  toe  (in  this  respect  differing  from  the  method  of 
making  all  other  shoes) ;  the  full  strength  of  the  iron  is  then 
used  to  form  the  inside  branch  of  the  shoe,  while  the  bar  is  so 
inclined  that  the  inside  branch  shows  a  marked  bevel.  Only 
two  nail  holes  are  stamped,  slightly  towards  the  inside  of  the 
toe.  After  punching  these  it  may  be  needful  to  lay  the  shoe 
ground  surface  upwards  on  the  face  of  the  anvil  and  give  two 
or  three  blows  to  flatten  the  shoe  at  the  toe;  otherwise  every- 
thing is  done  on  the  beak. 

In  making  a  bar-shoe  the  piece  of  iron  selected  must  be 
considerably  longer  than  that  needed  for  an  ordinary  shoe. 
The  bar  is  bent  at  the  toe,  and  with  the  same  heat  the  amount 
of  iron  necessary  to  form  half  the  '  bar '  is  turned  round  at 
right  angles  to  the  greatest  thickness  of  the  bar.  The  shoe  is 
next  rounded  and  shaped  on  the  beak,  seated  on  the  face  of 
the  anvil,  the  half  of  the  '  bar  '  turned  round  is  '  scarfed ' 
(i.e.,  thinned  down),  and  the  nail  holes  are  punched  (in  many 
cases  only  two  or  three  nail  holes  are  inserted  at  this  stage). 
The  inside  of  the  shoe  is  formed  at  the  second  heat,  and  the 
fireman  may  then  try  the  shoe  on  the  foot.  As  the  subsequent 
welding  of  the  two  parts  of  the  '  bar '  drives  apart  the  heels  by 
half  an  inch  or  more,  the  shoe  must  at  this  stage  be  somewhat 
narrow  at  the  back.  A  third  heat  is  required  for  welding  the 
two  parts  of  the  '  bar,'  and  a  fourth  or  even  a  fifth  may  be 
required  for  fully  fitting  out  the  shoe  and  stamping  the  last 
nail  holes,  especially  if  the  foot  be  much  broken  or  otherwise 
defective.  Altogether  the  making  of  a  bar-shoe  is  a  very 
excellent  test  of  the  fireman's  skill  and  judgment. 

4.  Varieties  of  Shoes. 
A  great  number  of  varieties  of  shoes  can  be  distinguished 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   SHOES. 


147 


according  to  their  breadth,  thickness,  weight,  the  presence  of 
calkins  or  toe-grips,  the  kind  of  work  demanded  of  the  horse, 
and  the  special  objects  for  which  shoes  are  sometimes  required, 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the  foot,  or 
the  prevention  of  slipping  in  frosty  weather. 

Among  them  we  distinguish  shoes  for  (1)  hacks  ;  (2)  hunters  ; 
(3)  race-horses ;  (4)  trotters  ;  (5)  carriage  horses ;  (6)  omnibus 
horses ;  (7)  cart  horses ;  (8)  special  systems  of  shoeing  like 
Charlier's,  Fitzwygram's,  and  the  Turkish  shoe ;  (9)  winter 
shoes;  (10)  shoes  for  'forging'  and  '  cutting ' ;  and  (11)  shoes 
for  defective  and  diseased  hoofs. 

When  we  remember  that  all  these  styles  are  of  different 
sizes  and  vary  in  themselves,  we  may  obtain  some  idea  of  the 
varieties  of  shoes,  especially  as  each  particular  kind  may  be 
modified  for  a  special  purpose.  For  example,  a  shoe  with  toe- 
grip  and  heels  may  be  used  in  forging  and  cutting  or  may  serve 
as  a  winter  shoe,  or  it  may  be  arranged  to  take  a  special  pad,  etc. 

A  few  remarks  (chietiy  in  relation  to  manufacture)  on 
shoes  with  calkins,  toe-pieces,  etc.,  are  offered  below,  but  a  de- 
scription of  the  special  shoes  required  for  different  services 
demands  considerable  technical  knowledge,  and  is  therefore 
reserved  for  a  later  chapter. 

Shoes  with  Calkins. — Shoes  with  calkins  are  formed  by 
turning  down  the  heels   of   the  shoe  towards  the  ground  or 


Fig.  93.— Right  fore  shoe  with  calkins,     a,  clip. 


Fig.  94.— Shoe  with 
obliquely  cut  off 
heel. 


(occasionally)  by  welding  on  a  piece  of  steel  to  the  heel.  Cal- 
kins may,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  downward  prolongations  of 
the  limbs  of  the  shoe.  Little  need  be  said  of  the  making  of 
such,  the  form,  breadth,  surfaces,  borders,  and  nail  holes  being 
of  just  the  same  description  as  in  other  shoes.  Under  the 
head  of  cart-horse  shoes  may  be  included  a  short  description 
of  calkins  and  toe-grips,  especially  in  relation  to  front  shoes. 


148  HORSE-SIIOES,   ETC. 

Calkins  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the  shoe,  regular  and 
quadrangular  in  outline  and  not  too  high.  The  best  are  more 
or  less  square  in  section  and  their  corners  are  rounded  off 
(figs.  93  and  103,  h).  When  of  this  form  they  are  most  easily 
sharpened  in  winter.  Front  shoes  are  sometimes  provided 
with  calkins  bevelled  away  obliquely  at  the  back.  They  are 
most  useful  for  horses  that  cut  (fig.  94). 

The  heio'ht  of  the  calkin  should  be  twice  the  thickness  of 
the  portion  of  the  shoe  immediately  in  front  of  it,  and  both 
calkins  should  be  of  the  same  height.  The  greatest  injury  is 
done  when  the  outer  calkin  is  lower  than  the  inner.  The  inner 
upper  edge  of  the  heel  should  be  well  rounded  off  so  as  to  give 
space  for  the  frog. 

Shoes  are  sometimes  formed  with  a  longish  quadrangular 
projection  termed  a  toe-piece  or  toe-grip  (fig.  103,  a).  Toe-grips 
were  introduced  later  than  calkins.  They  were  intended  to 
grasp  the  ground  and  to  give  the  shoe  greater  durability. 
Toe-pieces  in  hind  shoes  give  draught  horses  a  much  better 
hold  in  winter  and  on  slippery  ground. 

The  grips,  usually  made  of  a  special  steel,  though  sometimes 
only  of  iron,  are  separately  forged.  According  to  their  form 
they  are  termed  diamond-headed,  chisel-headed,  and  blunt.  The 
diamond-headed  require  two  heats,  the  chisel-headed  only  one 
heat  in  foroing.  The  chisel-headed  also  is  a  better  and  more 
useful  form  than  the  diamond  and  does  not  require  any  special 
anvil.  The  blunt  grip  is  applied  by  heating  the  grip  and  shoe 
and  then  wielding  together.  In  practice  some  prefer  one  form, 
some  another. 

One  manufacturer,  Mr  Wooldridge,  makes  a  specialty  of 
self -fastening  toe  and  heel-pieces.  His  system  consists  in  fit- 
ting a  tapered-shank  cog  into  a  parallel-sided  hole.  The  hole 
should  be  of  such  size  that  w^hen  the  cog  is  inserted  and  lightly 
driven  home  a  space  exists  between  the  shoulder  of  the  cog 
and  the  surface  of  the  shoe.  The  weight  of  the  horse  acting 
on  the  cogs  then  tends  to  drive  them  still  further  home,  so 
that  the  longer  the  cogs  are  worn  the  more  firmly  do  they  be- 
come fixed.  We  believe  this  method  of  shoeing  has  proved 
very  successful  and  is  largely  used  in  the  North.  In  fitting,  a 
punch  is  first  driven  through  the  foot  surface  of  the  shoe. 
Then  a  drift  is  passed  through   the  aperture  left  by  the  punch, 


SHOES   WITH    KEMOVABLE   TOE   AND   HEEL    PIECES. 


149 


care  being  taken  not  to  hammer  the  shoe  so  as  to  alter  the 
size  or  shape  of  the  hole  after  drifting.  When  the  shoe  is 
cold  tlie  rough  edges  left  on  the  ground  surface  are  tiled  away 


Fig.  95.— Shoe  fitted  for  removable  toe  and  heel  pieces. 

and  the  holes  opened  with  an  opening  punch,  so  that  the  cog 
or  toe-piece  will  go  half  way  into  the  shoe  without  driving. 
This  completes  the  operation  and  leaves  the  shoe  as  shown  in 


Figs.  96,  97,  and  98.— Heel-pieces  (sharp).  Fig.  99.— Blunt  heel-piece. 

ficr.   95.      The  succeedino;  fiorures  show  various  forms  of    cogs 


'o* 


and  toe-pieces.  Owing  to  their  form,  these  cogs,  etc.,  always 
wear  with  a  sharp  edge,  and  their  shanks  being  elongated,  the 
holes  required  do  not  weaken  the  shoe. 

To  remove  old  cogs  the  wedge-shaped  pronged  tool  illustrated 
is  driven  between  the  shoulder  of  the  cog  and  surface  of  the 


150 


HORSE-SHOES,   ETC. 


shoe,  when  the  worn  cog  can  at  once  be  detached  and  replaced 
by  a  new  one.  For  winter  use  this  method  is  of  undoubted 
vahie.  The  inventor  also  recommends  it  as  a  permanent 
means  of  shoeing.  Being  without  personal  experience  of  the 
results,  we  pronounce  no  judgment  on  this  head. 

Toe-grips  should  never  be  higher  than  the  calkins,  but  the 


Fig.  100. — Removable  toe-piece. 


Fig.  101.-  Removable  toe-piece. 


calkins  may  well  be- some  fractions  of  an  inch  thicker  than 
above  indicated.  The  height  and  breadth  of  the  grip,  and 
even  the  exact  position  where  it  should  be  inserted,  depend 
mainly  upon  the  way  the  horse  moves  and  the  wear  of  the 
old  shoe.  Whether  steel  or  iron  should  be  employed  depends 
upon  special  circumstances.  When  it  is  necessary  to  increase 
the  durability  of  the  shoe,  or,  as  during  frost,  to  make  the 
sharpened   grips    last    longer,  steel  is  the   best    material,  but 


Fig.  1102.— Tool  for  removing  old  heel-pieces. 

when   it  is   only   a  question  of  preventing  slipping  on  stone 
pavement  iron  is  preferable. 

In  fore-feet  calkins  and  toe-grips  are  seldom  necessary,  nor  are 
they  desirable  for  the  health  of  the  hoof ;  on  the  other  hand,  in 
winter  they  are  sometimes  very  useful  (see  '  Winter  Shoeing '). 
In  summer  they  do  not  prevent  slipping  and  stumbling  on 
stone  pavement  with  absolute  certainty.  The  condition  of  the 
pavement  is  here  of  less  account  than  the  convexity  of  the 
individual  stones ;  the  more  convex  the  latter  the  less  secure 
the  horse's  foothold.  In  this  respect  careful  driving  is  of  more 
importance  than  special  shoeing.      Though  calkins  are  less  used 


MACHINE-MADE   SHOES. 


151 


than  formerly  they  are  still  often  employed  when  they  might 
well  be  dispensed  with.  In  the  majority  of  cases  they  are 
certainly  not  necessary  in 
front  shoes.  Fore-feet  are 
more  liable  to  disease  than 
hind-feet,  which  fact  should 
alone  be  sufhcient  ground 
for  using  calkins  on  fore 
shoes  as  little  as  possible. 
In  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  the 
North  of  England,  and  in 
Vienna,  calkins  are  very 
common  ;  in  Paris  and  Lon- 
don less  so,  a  proof  that 
the  above  principles  are  not 

to  be  rigidly  adhered    to    in        fig.  103.— Left  hind  shoe  with  («)  toe-grip  and 
'^       "  ib)  calkins. 

every  case. 

Machine-made  Shoes. — The  trade  in  machine-made  shoes, 
which  has  been  in  existence  for  the  past  thirty  years,  has  now 
assumed  enormous  pro- 
portions, the  small  de- 
fects that  exist  in  most 
machine  -  made  shoes 
beino-  more  than  coun- 
terbalanced  by  the  sav- 
ing in  time  and  money. 
The  nail  holes  are  not 
always  correct,  most 
machine-made  shoes  being  too  finely  holed.  There  is  little 
distinction  between  right  and  left  shoes,  and  to  give  increased 
durability,  greater  toughness  is  desirable. 

In  Germany  many  shoes  are  sent  out  ready  for  driving,  the 
heels  being  finished,  calkins  turned  down,  toe-grips  affixed,  clips 
draw^n,  and  the  shoes  finished  complete  in  every  part.  Such  shoes, 
therefore,  only  require  to  be  selected  and  fitted  to  the  feet,  the 
necessary  alterations  being  slight.  They  are  especially  useful 
when  hot  shoeing  is  inconvenient  or  impossible,  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  Colonies  and  on  military  expeditions.  Without  going  into 
the  question  whether  cold  is  better  than  hot  fitting,  we  may 
say  that  the  production  of  finished  machine-made  shoes  should 


Fig.  104. — Steel  rod  with  toe  and  heel  grips  partly  formed. 


152  HORSE-SHOES,   ETC. 

certainly  give  a  great  impulse  to  the  former  method.  Finished 
shoes  are  supplied  by  one  or  more  German  firms,  and  we 
should  imagine  some  of  our  English  firms  might  undertake 
the  same  business  with  success. 

Every  method  of  shoeing,  even  the  best,  produces  numerous 
bad  results,  such  as  contraction,  diminished  horn  production, 
etc.,  as  well  as  other  more  recondite  changes.  Such  results 
become  most  noticeable  when  the  horse  is  worked  on  hard 
pavements,  and  are  less  serious  on  soft,  heavy  ground.  They 
are  aggravated  by  slipping  on  smooth  surfaces  and  by  shocks 
of  all  kinds.  The  many  small  but  unavoidable  effects  of 
shoeing  form  a  prolific  cause  of  disease  in  the  limbs.  This 
fact  has  long  been  recognised,  and  attempts  have  been  made 
to  remedy  it  by  changes  in  the  method  of  shoeing.  Each  of 
such  changes  removes  one  or  more  evils.  One  of  the  most 
important  was  the  attempt  to  produce  an  easier,  softer  method 
of  going,  which  should  both  prevent  slipping  and  diminish  the 
shock  to  the  limb.  Accordingly,  soft,  elastic  materials  have 
been  employed,  either  to  entirely  replace  iron,  or  to  be  used  in 
combination  with  it. 

In  consequence,  pads  composed  of  rubber,  plaited  rope, 
leather,  wood,  etc.,  have  been  provided  to  cover  varying  pro- 
portions of  the  hoof.  These  will  be  further  considered  in  a 
special  chapter. 

The  reasons  why  many  of  these  novelties  have  only  a  fleet- 
ing existence  are,  that  they  do  not  sufficiently  fit  the  hoof, 
and  because  they  will  not  bear  the  necessary  warming  or 
working.  As  the  hoof  should  never  be  formed  to  fit  the  shoe, 
but  the  shoe  to  fit  the  hoof  (due  regard  being  had  to  the 
distribution  of  weight),  the  ground  of  this  failure  is  fairly 
apparent. 


CHAPTEE    11. 

WINTER   SHOEING. 

Tx  order  to  oive  the  horse  a  better  foothold  when  the 
roads  are  covered  with  ice  and  snow,  special  shoes  or  special 
modifications  of  the  ordinary  shoe,  which  at  other  times  would 
be  superfluous  or  even  injurious,  become  necessary. 

These  additions  or  modifications  varv  according;  to  the 
severity  of  the  weather  and  the  work  required  of  the  animal. 
They  are  all  comprised  under  the  collective  term  '  roughing,' 
though  the  special  styles  are  too  numerous  for  detailed  descrip- 
tion here.  Therefore  only  a  few  of  the  more  practical  will  be 
noted. 

In  the  far  north,  where  snow  lies  deep  and  winter  weather 
continues  for  several  months,  simple  methods  of  roughing  may 
be  employed,  though  in  more  changeable  latitudes  these  would 
soon  be  rendered  useless  by  contact  with  the  hard  ground. 

All  systems  of  roughing  at  present  in  use  are  more  or  less 
imperfect.  The  chief  objects  to  keep  in  view  are  briefly 
summarised  below. 

(1)  Simplicity. — No  system  can  ever  succeed  wliich  is  not 

simjyle  of  execution,  or  in  which  the  farrier  is  required 
to  use  many  special  tools.  Furthermore,  the  applica- 
tion of  the  '  rough  '  must  be  an  even  simpler  matter 
than  the  preparation  of  the  shoe,  so  that  any  stable- 
man may  affix  it.  Finally,  the  '  rough  '  must  be  easy 
to  remove. 

(2)  Rapidity  in  the  preparation  of  the  shoe  and  the  affixing 

and  removal  of  the  '  rough  '  is  almost  as  important 
as  simplicity  of  application,  especially  in  the  army. 

(3)  Economy    must    be    kept    in    view,  as    the    expense   of 

roughing  a  large  stud  during  a  long  winter  would 
otherwise  prove  excessively  costly. 


154  WINTER   SHOEING. 

(4)  Durability. — The  '  rough '  must  neither  wear  away  fast 

nor  become  loose,  otherwise  it  may  lead  to  dangerous 
cutting  or  to  severe  falls.  At  the  same  time,  as 
increase  of  weight  is  a  disadvantage,  durability  must 
be  sought  by  the  use  of  the  best  material.  The 
method  of  fastening  must  also  be  such  that  the  '  rough  ^ 
can  be  affixed  even  when  the  shoe  is  considerably 
worn. 

(5)  Ada'ptability. — A  proper  system  should  be  adaptable   to 

all  horses,  all  kinds  of  work,  and  to  all  shoes. 

(6)  Efficiency  is  more  or  less  represented  by  the  sum  of  the 

above,  but  also  depends  on  the  depth  to  which  the 
'  roughs '  enter  the  ground,  and  on  their  number.  It 
becomes  less,  of  course,  as  wear  advances. 

1.  EouGH  Nailing. 

Ivough  nailing  consists  in  removing  an  inner  and  an  outer 
nail,  and  replacing  them  by  others  with  pointed  or  chisel-shaped 
heads.  This  method  does  very  well  for  saddle  horses  and 
animals  used  only  occasionally  and  for  light   work. 

In  the  German  army  lOugh  nails  are  employed  in  addition 
to  screws  of  three  sizes.  In  Denmark  and  other  northern 
countries  large,  strong  nails,  with  heads  case-hardened  by  means 
of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  are  a  common  means  of  roughing, 
a  specially  large  hole  being  punched  in  the  toe  of  the  shoe. 
Such  nails  are  termed  '  broddar,'  and  replace  the  ordinary 
toe-grip.  They  can,  of  course,  be  changed  from  time  to  time, 
and  appear  to  suit  the  local  requirements  excellently.  Eough 
nails,  the  shanks  of  which  do  not  pass  through  the  horny  wall, 
but  are  driven  through  special  holes  in  the  shoe,  and  turned 
down  on  its  upper  and  outer  border,  are  technically  known  as 
'  stubs,'  and  are  largely  used  in  England,  France,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  Finland,  and  North  America.  They  can  be  inserted 
at  any  point  in  the  shoe,  though  the  heels  and  inner  and 
outer  parts  of  the  toe  are  the  best  places. 

Of  those  shown  here  the  wedge-headed  are  the  best,  and 
wear  longest.  Owing  to  their  small  mass  the  diamond-headed 
soon  lose  their  efficiency,  in  addition  to  which  they  are  more 
likely  to  inflict  injury  on  the  coronet  of  the  opposite  foot. 


FROST   NAILS   AND   STUBS. 


155 


Delperier  invented  a  special  form  of  nail  now  largely  used 
in  France,  to  prevent  slipping  on  smooth  granite  '  setts '  and 


.^ — 

Frost  nails. 


Fig.  105. 


Frost  stubs. 


also  on  frozen  macadamised  roads.      It  is  simple,  durable,  and 
effective. 

The  nail  consists  of  a  head,  neck,  and  shank.  The  head  is 
cubical,  this  form  having  been  found  more  durable  and  gener- 
ally useful  than  the  pointed  or  wedge  heads.  The  wearing 
surface  presents  two  deep  cuts  dividing  it  into  four  parts,  and 


^ 
A 

-4r\ 

iiiiiiiiiBrf 

iiiiiii" 

Fig.  106.— Del perier's  frost  nail. 

improving  its  holding  power  on  the  roadway.  The  head  is 
of  the  same  height  as  the  web  of  the  shoe  to  which  the  nail  is 
attached.  Experience  .shows  that  this  is  more  than  sufficient 
to  wear  for  one  day.  The  neck  and  shank  are  relatively  very 
short  and  stout. 


156 


WINTER   SHOEING. 


For  making  the  holes  in  the  shoe  a  special  stamp  (see  fig. 
109)  is  employed.  The  shoe  being  at  a  red  heat,  the  stamp  is 
applied  at  the  proper  point  on  the  lower  surface,  and  driven 
through  half  the  thickness  of  the  shoe  in  a  vertical  direction ; 
the  stamp  is  then  slightly  inclined,  and  with  a  few  more  blows 
of  the  hammer  is  caused  to  emerge  at  the  upper  and  outer 
edge.  The  hole  is  then  punched  back  so  as  to  leave  a  clear 
passage,  and  when  the  shoe  is  cold,  any  burr  is  filed  off.  Two 
holes  are  punched  in  each  limb  of  the  shoe. 

To  prevent  the  holes  being  filled  up  or  burred  over,  Del- 
perier  uses  two  forms  of  nail,  one  for  ordinary  and  one  for 
frosty  weather.  As  the  nails  are  disposed  at  similar  points  in 
each  half  of  the  shoe,  the  balance  is  in  nowise  altered,  and 
this  method  is  now  extensively  used  in  Paris  and  other  large 
towns  throughout  the  year. 

In  use  the  nails  are  slipped  into  the  holes,  driven  home 
and  tlie  shank  turned   down  on  the  outer  ed^e  of  the  shoe.      If 


Fig.  107.— Stamp  for  Delperier's  FiG.  108.— Section  of  shoe  with  Delperier's 

frost  uail.  uail  inserted. 

the  shoe  be  thin,  it  may  be  necessary  to  cut  the  shank  some- 
what shorter,  just  as  the  point  of  an  ordinary  horse  nail  is  cut 
before  forming  the  clench. 

2.  Roughing  by  Means  of  Sharp  Heels  and  Toes. 


The  outer  heel  is  '  steeled,'  then  drawn  down,  and  sharpened 
on  the  anvil  at  a  right  angle  to  the  web  of  the  shoe  (fig.  109). 


METHODS   OF   ROUGHING. 


157 


Fig.  109.  Fig.  110. 

Fig.  109. — Outer  heel  '  sharpened.' 
Fig.  110.— Inner  heel  'sharpened.' 


This  form  remains  sharp  for  a  longer  time  and  wears  more 
regularly  than  any  other.  The  inner  heel  is  wedge-shaped, 
and  is  also  at  right  angles  to  the 
web.  To  prevent  cutting  it  is  best 
not  to  make  it  quite  sharp  and  to 
round  off  the  outer  edge  (fig.  110). 

This  is  the  oldest  method  of 
roughing,  and  may  be  applied  to  all 
horses  employed  at  slow  work.  In 
heavy  cart  horses  a  small  piece  of 
steel  is  sometimes  let  into  the  toe 
(of  the  shoe)  and  sharpened.  A  special  kind  of  steel  is  made 
for  this  purpose,  which  welds  easily  and  thoroughly  with  iron. 
In  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  wear,  such  toe-grips  should  be 
hardened,  though  it  is  not  desirable  to  render  them  too  brittle 
by  suddenly  cooling  the  entire  shoe. 

Eouohiuo;  one  heel  is  insufhcient,  and  should  be  condemned. 

As  the  above  method  of  roughing  requires  the  removal  of 
the  shoe  each  time  it  is  renewed,  serious  disadvantages  follow 
its  repeated  use.  Firstly  comes  the  loss  of  the  animal's  service 
while  waiting  at  the  farrier's,  to  which  must  be  added  the  too 
frequent  injuries  from  pricking  as  well  as  injuries  to  the  wall. 


Fig.  111. — Count  von  Einsiedel's  winter  shoe  for 
front  feet. 


Fig.  112.— The  same  for  hind-feet. 


Even  when  the  greatest  care  is  used,  the  hoof  will  not  bear 
removal  of  the  shoe  more  than  five  to  six  times  per  month. 
These  drawbacks  led  to  the  invention  of  Count  von  Ein- 


158  WINTER   SHOEING. 

siedel's  winter  shoe  (figs.  Ill  and  112).  This  shoe  has  neither 
calkins  nor  toe-pieces ;  its  ground  surface  is  divided  into  two 
sharp  edges  by  means  of  a  deep  fuller.  It  is  made  from 
three-cornered  rolled  iron  which  is  cut  into  the  necessary 
lengths,  bent  into  form,  and  then  fullered.  The  hind  shoe 
differs  from  the  front  in  that  its  heels  are  sharp  and  are  bent 
forward  in  the  direction  of  the  bars.  They  are  thus  very 
useful  in  preventing  slipping  in  a  forward  direction. 

3.    EOUGHING    WITH    SCREWS. 

The  necessity  for  the  use  of  good  iron  has  already  been  in- 
dicated, but  this  is  of  special  importance  in  the  manufacture  of 
shoes  which  are  destined  to  carry  screws,  because  if  it  be  want- 
ing in  toughness,  brittle  at  a  red  heat,  or  show  a  tendency  to 
fissure,  it  will  not  permit  of  screwing.  With  the 
exception  of  the  heels,  the  shoe  exactly  resembles 
an  ordinary  shoe,  and  even  the  heels  do  not  re- 
quire to  be  much  thicker  or  broader  than  in  the 
common  variety. 

The  holes  are  made  either  by  punching  or 
boring.  In  punching  an  almost  cylindrical  punch 
is  used,  and  the  hole  completed  on  a  round  drift 
thickest  in  the  middle.  This  drift,  for  a  distance 
of  |-  of  an  inch  in  the  centre,  should  be  as  thick 
as  the  tap  afterwards  employed  to  produce  the 
screw.  The  ground  opening  should  be  slightly 
countersunk  (fig.  113),  so  that  after  the  thread 
Fig.  113.  -  Heel  of  has   bccu  cut,  the  screw  may  sit   close  to  the 

"screwed"    shoe  p  £    ^.t,       i,      i 

with  countersunk  surtacc  ot  the  hecl. 

^^^^*  The  screws  are  made  either  of  iron  or  a  special 

steel,  and  their  manufacture  is  seldom  undertaken  by  the  work- 
ing farrier.  Iron  is  soft,  and,  therefore,  less  durable,  but  steel  is 
excellent  for  the  purpose,  and  when  the  screws,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  thread,  are  hardened  by  heating  to  a  dull  red  and 
cooling  in  damp  sand,  they  possess  the  greatest  resistance  to 
wear,  and  at  the  same  time  sufficient  toughness.  The  method 
employed  by  Schafer  of  Dresden  is  as  simple  as  it  is  practical. 
It  is  also  used  in  the  School  of  Practical  Farriery,  Dresden. 
As  it  may  be  useful  under  certain  circumstances,  a  short  de- 


I'ROST  SCREWS   AND  THEIR   MANUFACTURE. 


159 


scriptioii  is  appended.  The  screws  are  formed  of  square  steel 
from-  J-  to  ^  inch  in  thickness,  a  special  anvil  being  employed 
(fig.  114,  c  and  a).  The  mould  for  forming  the  shank  (a,  a) 
is  held  in  the  centre  of  the  anvil  in  two  special  guides  {n,  n). 
It  is  of  steel,  and  possesses,  as  shown  by  the  figure,  two 
moulds  or  grooves  of  dissimilar  breadth,  of  which  that  on  the 
right  is  for  the  preparation,  and  that  on  the  left  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  shank.      These  moulds  correspond  also  to   the 


Fig.  114. — Anvil  foi-  making  screws,  a.  mould  for  forming  shank;  b,  cutter;  c,  mould  for 
making  sharp-headed  screws  ;  d,  plate  carrying  set  screws,  g,  and  held  in  position  by  the 
two  screws,  e,  e  ;  /,  die  carrying  the  moulds,  a,  a.  This  can  be  set  at  any  distance  from 
the  plate,  d,  by  moving  the  set  screws,  (j.  The  length  of  the  shank  is  thus  fixed ;  A, 
forging  hammer. 

forging  hammer  {li),  which  is  slid  into  the  grooves  {n)  and 
comes  down  on  the  piece  of  square  steel :  as  soon  as  the 
hammer  Qi)  and  the  mould  {a)  come  in  contact,  the  shank  is 
of  the  proper  thickness.  Although  the  steel  is  drawn  out  by 
working  in  the  right  mould,  it  is  still  too  large  for  the  left, 
into  which  it  is  next  inserted,  and  in  which  it  is  finished. 
The  difference  in  the  diameter  of  the  two  moulds  determines 
the  amount  of  elongation  which  th6  shank  undergoes  in  the 
process.  In  making  blanks  or  blunt  screws,  the  height  of 
the  screw  is  next  marked,  the  stop  (/)  placed  in  position,  the 
heated  bar  passed  first  into  the  mould  {a)  and  then  into  the 
mould  on  the  left,  and  forged  until  the  forging  hammer  and 
mould  come  in  contact.     It  is  then  cut  off,  roughly  finished. 

In  making  chisel-headed  screws  (fig.   115)  the  mould  (c)  is 
first  used,  and  the  same  process  gone  through  to  form  the  shank 


160 


WINTEK   SHOEING. 


as  given  above.      Before  cutting  the  thread,  which  is  performed 

with  the  machine  shown  in  fig.  116,  the  screws  are  heated  with 

charcoal  and  the  end  of  the 
shank  filed  off  square.  The 
screw  is  then  grasped  between 
the  claws  (a)  and  the  slide-rest 
(h)  advanced  until  the  shank 
engages  the  die  {c,  d)  and  the 
latter  begins  to  cut ;  the  gradu- 
ating screw  (c)  serves  to  fix  the 
position  of  the  two  portions  of 
the  die,  so  that  the  shanks  of 
the  screws  may  be  of  equal 
thickness.  The  thickness  of  the 
shank  is  about  -|-  an  inch,  the 

thread  is  on  Wliitworth's  scale,  for  saddle  horses  a  trifie  smaller, 

say,  -/g-  of  an  inch. 

In  England  and  Denmark  screws  with  a  concavity  on  either 


Fig.  115.— Screws  (full  size)  provided 
with  AVliit worth  thread. 


Fig.  116. — Screw-cuttiug  machine.  «,  claws  for  grasping  screw ;  b,  slides  for  adjusting  the 
cutting  parts  of  die,  c  and  d;  e,  set  screw  for  determining  the  thickness  of  the  finished 
shank. 

face  are  also  used  (fig.  117).  In  the  German  army  screw^s  are 
largely  employed.  The  shank  is  about  -J-  an  inch  thick  and 
about  I"  inch  long,  the  screw  being  formed  of  square 
steel  bar  a  trifle  more  than  ^  an  inch  on  either 
face.  The  process  is  as  follows  : — A  mould,  speci- 
ally designed  for  field  use  (fig.  119),  is  carried.  The 
steel  bar  is  first  raised  to  a  white  heat  and  the 
chisel  edge  roughly  sharpened  on  the  beak  or  horn 
screw  with  con-  of  the  auvil  by  means  of  the  hand-hammer.      The 

C3.VG  sides 

steel  rod  is  then  laid  in  the  hollow  part  of  the 
mould,  so  that  the  chisel  head  rests  against  the  front.  With 
the  help  of  the  forging  hammer,  and  by  continually  turning  the 


MANUFACTUPvE   OF   FROST   SCREWS. 


161 


b'lG.  118.— Frost  screws  used  by  the 
German  army.  Measurements 
in  mm. 


36. s 


rod,  the  shank  is  formed,  the  hammer  being  used  at  first  vigor- 
ously and  afterwards  more  Hghtly.  The  chisel  head  of  the 
screw,  which  has  become  somewhat  turned  up  by  striking 
against  the  front  of  the  mould, 
is  then  once  more  sharpened, 
and  the  partially  finished  screw 
cut  off  with  the  hand-chisel  on 
the  front  of  the  anvil.  In  mak- 
ing blunt  screws  a  piece  of  the 
bar,  about  ^  an  inch  in  length,  is 
left  projecting  beyond  the  mould. 
The  end  of  the  shank  is  rounded 
off  and  the  thread  cut  upon  it 
by  means  of  a  screw-cutting 
machine,  which  is  dropped  into 
the  cross  channel.  A  practised 
smith  is  said  to  be  able  with  this  mould  to  produce  about  100 
screws  per  hour.  In  form- 
ing the  thread  only  one 
screw-cutting  machine  is 
required,  as,  of  course,  it 
will  take  any  ordinary  size 
of  screw. 

The  advantages  of  well- 
manufactured  screwed  shoes 
are  so  many  that  this 
method  deserves  preference 
over  any  other.  The  ob- 
jections that  screws  are  lost, 
broken,  etc.,  can  usually  be 
referred  to  carelessness  in 
manufacture  and  the  use  of 
bad  materials.  The  use  of 
screws  is  one  of  the  best 
methods  of  roughing.  A 
set  of  sharp  and  blunt 
screws  and  a  small  key 
should  be  supplied  with 
each  set  of  shoes. 

The  screws  shown  herewith  are  those  most  commonly  used 

L 


i^..lL.^ 


Fig.  119.— Mould  for  making  screws.     Army 
pattern  for  field  use. 


162 


WINTER  SHOEING. 


in  England.      The  wedge  shape  (fig.  120)  is  the  mosfc  popular, 
as  it  gives  a  good  foothold  and  at  the  same  time  wears  well : 


I'lG.  120. 


KIG.  121. 


Fig.  122. 


Fig.  123. 


Fig.  124. 


the  modified  wedge  with  concave  faces  (fig.  121),  though  per- 
haps criving  a  rather  better  hold,  is  not  so  durable,  while  the 
diamond-pointed  screw  (fig.  123)  soon  loses  its  sharp- 
ness, wears  rapidly,  and  has  the  grave  drawback  when 
new  of  inflicting  dangerous  wounds  on  tlie  coronet 
should  the  horse  cross  his  legs  or  slip.  For  these 
reasons  it  is  now  little  used.  The  square-headed  screw 
(fig.  124)  is  called  a  '  blank,'  and  is  used  for  preserving 
the  holes  during  ordinary  work.  It  also  gives  a  certain 
amount  of  foothold,  and  is  sometimes  used  even  during 
¥iQ^.—  frosty  weather.  The  screw  tap  shown  is  preferable  to 
.Taper tap.  ^^^  ordinary  form,  as  the  increased  size  of  the  head 
gives  greater  leverage  in  screwing,  and  renders  the  tap  less 
liable  to  break  at  this  point.     Fig.  126  shows  a  plug  tap  for 

clearing  the  screw  holes  before  in- 
serting the  screw,  combining  with 
the  tap  a  '  picker,'  useful  for  clear- 
ing the  holes  and  removing  hard 
masses  of  snow,  etc.,  from  the  foot. 

Modified  forms  of  Screws.  —  The 
fact  that  in  large  towns,  where  snow 
is  removed  from  the  streets  and  the 
screws  come  in  direct  contact  with 
hard  pavement,  all  chisel  or  pyra- 
midal screws  soon  become  blunt,  renders  shoeing  both  more 
costly  and  more  troublesome.  Attempts  have  therefore  been 
made  to  produce  screws  which  remain  permanently  sharp  and 
prevent  slipping  even  after  long  wear  on  hard  ground.  Such, 
certainly,  have  advantages. 


Fig.  126. 


SPECIAL   FORMS   OF   FEOST   SCREWS. 


163 


Amongst  them  we  may  cite,  firstly,  the  screws  and  cogs  with 
an  H-formed  surface  (fig.  127).  2.  Screws  with  a  cross-shaped 
bearing  surface  (fig.  128).     3.  Screws  and  cogs  with  T-formed 


Fig.  127. — Screw  with  H-shaped  head. 


Fig.  12S.— Screw  with  +-shaped  head. 


ground  surface.  4.  Screws  and  cogs  with  S-shaped  ground 
surface.  5.  Angled  screws  (fig.  129).  6.  Screws  and  cogs 
with  inserted  rubber  plugs.     7.   Screws  with  radiating  Y-shaped 


Fig.  129. 


Fig.  130. 


Fig.  129.— Screw  with  angled  head. 
Fig.  130.— With  Y-sliaped  head. 


Fig.  131.  Fig.  132. 

Fig.  131. — Hollow  screw. 
Fig.  132. — Perforated  screw. 


bearing    surface    (fig.    130).       8.    Hollow     screws    (fig.    131). 
9.  Perforated  screws  (fig.  132).     And  10.  Spring  cogs. 

The  durability  of  these  screws  and  the  foothold  which  they 


Fig.  133.  -Universal  screw-key. 

give  depend  chiefly  on  their  diameter  and  the  direction  of  the 
wearing  surfaces.  So  far  as  experience  teaches,  those  with  the 
narrowest  and  fewest  wearing  surfaces  are  least  durable,  but  this 


164 


WINTER   SHOEING. 


may  be  compeDsated  by  the  use  of  thoroughly  good  material. 
The  improved  foothold  is  of  course  a  great  advantage. 

In  inserting  and  removing  screws  a  key  is  employed,  one  of 
the  simplest  and  most  effective  forms  being  that  shown  in  fig. 
133,  which  fits  all  forms  of  screws ;  the  head  is  hardened. 

4.  Cogs. 


Shoes  destined  to  receive  cogs  differ  in  no  important 
respect  from  ordinary  shoes.  To  prevent  the  cogs  being 
lost  they  should  be  conical  in  form  and  exhibit  a  taper 
of  about  one  in  ten,  while  the  holes  for  their  reception  must 
correspond  exactly  in  size  with  tlie  thickness  of  the  centre  of 
the  shank. 

(a)  Bound  cogs  were  invented  in  1869  by  Judson.  The 
holes  to  receive  coq;S  can  be  made  in  the  heated  or  unheated 
shoe.  In  the  first  case  the  hole  is  formed  with  a  round  punch 
rather  smaller  than  the  shank  of  the  cog  and  finished,  after 
fitting  the  shoe,  by  means  of  a  conical  slightly  oiled  steel  drift 

tanerinii;  from  either  end 
about  one  in  ten.  The 
holes  can  also  be  bored  and 
countersunk  in  the  cold 
shoe.  For  this  purpose  a 
drill  (the  best  form  is  the 
American  twist  drill)  is 
necessary,  the  diameter  of 
which  exactly  corresponds 
to  the  thickness  of  the 
upper  end  of  the  cog  (figs. 
134  and  135,  c).  After  the 
shoe  is  fitted  to  the  foot  the 
holes  are  widened  by  means  of  the  counter-sink  shown  in 
fig.  136,  which  is  introduced  from  the  ground  surface.  As  the 
shank  of  the  counter-sink  corresponds  in.  thickness  to  that  of 
the  cog,  the  latter  should  then  fit  firmly.  Any  little  rough- 
ness of  the  margin  of  the  hole  is  removed  with  a  file  and  the 
border  once  more  smoothed  ofi'  by  introducing  the  counter-sink. 
The  cogs  are  made  of  rolled  cast  steel  of  round  section,  and 
may  be  the  same  diameter  as  the  hole  or  about  J>-  inch  thicker. 


Fig.  134.  Fig.  135.  Fig.  136. 

Fig.  134.  -Sharp  cog. 

Fig.  135. — Blunt  cog.     a,  head ;  b,  shank. 

Fig.  1.36. — Counter-sink  fur  enlarging  holes  iu  shoe. 


FKOST   COGS. 


165 


A  mould,  the  holes  in  which  have  been  made  by  the  counter- 
sink, is  necessary ;  the  steel  rod  is  slightly  warmed  and  drawn 
until  it  will  enter  the  mould  to  within  about  one-twentieth 
of  an  inch  of  the  end.  A  sufticient  length  is  then  left  pro- 
jecting and  the  bar  so  deeply  notched  that  it  can  easily  be 
broken  off.  This  may  be  done  immediately,  and  the  cog 
cooled,  a  blank  resulting ;  or  if  a  chisel  edge  is  required,  the 
cog  is  grasped  with  special  tongs  having  short  jaws  bored 
out  to  receive  the  shank,  and  the  chisel  edge  is  then  formed 
with  a  hammer. 

It  is  much  easier,  however,  not  to  give  the  shank  a  conical 
form,  but  merely  to  produce  a  chisel  edge  and  to  cut  off  the 
cylindrical  cog  thus  formed.  Diamond-headed  cogs  are  pro- 
duced on  an  oblique  tool,  similar  to  that  in  fig.  142,  b,  by  using 
a  special  hammer  and  turning  the  bar  frequently. 

The  cogs  (fig.  lo7)  can  easily  be  cut  to  the  same  length  by 
fixing  a  stop  at  the  necessary 
distance  in  front  of  the  cutter. 
They  are  made  on  the  anvil  shown 
in  fig.  114,  it  l)eing  only  neces- 
sary to  have  proper  moulds  and 
a  proper  hammer.  Before  nail- 
ing on  the  shoes  the  cogs  should 
be  tried.  They  are  well  made 
when  the  shanks  fit  tightly  all 
round  and  their  ends  fill  the  en- 
tire hole,  with  the  exception  of  a 
space  of  J^  to  ^  inch  at  the  upper  surface  of  the  shoe.  The 
coo^s  are  insertecl  after  shoeiuo; :  the  first  introduced  can  be  fixed 
by  means  of  a  light  blow ;  in  inserting  the  second,  however,  it 
is  necessary  to  press  gently  on  the  first,  which  might  otherwise 
jump  out  under  the  shock  of  hammering.  All  that  is  necessary 
to  insure  their  holding  is  care  in  manufacture  and  fixing. 

(b)  Quadrangular  cogs  were  suggested  by  Dominik  of  Berlin. 
In  usina'  cosis  of  -3-  inch  thickness  in  the  shank,  a  hole  is 
punched  through  the  heel  of  the  shoe  by  means  of  a  square, 
moderately  conical  punch,  the  end  of  which  measures,  say,  ^ 
inch ;  this  hole  is  enlarged  with  a  drift.  The  holes  should  be 
punched  from  the  ground  surface,  care  being  taken  to  hold  the 
tool  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the  shoe. 


Fig.  137.— Rountl  sharp  cogs,  a,  for 
tlvaught;  h,  for  riding  horses  (nat. 
size). 


166 


WINTER   SHOEING. 


The  slight  burr  produced  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  shoe 
by  the  passage  of  the  drift  should  always  be  removed  with  a 
file,  and  never  beaten  down  with  the  hammer.  The  first  hole 
is  widened  by  using  a  drift.  In  this  process  the  heels  of  the 
shoe  are  warmed  to  a  dull  red,  and  the  drift  driven  through  at 
right  angles  to  the  surface  by  a  few  light  rapid  strokes. 

A  simple  method  of  manufacturing  cogs  was  invented  by 
a  veterinary  surgeon  named  Schleinitz.  The  blunt  cogs  are 
made  cold,  the  chisel- edged  warm.  In  forming  a  blunt  cog  the 
end  of  the  square  rod  is  hammered  on  all  sides  until  it  will 


a 


Fig.  138.— a,  upper;  «',  lower  end  of  anvil  for  forming  shank  ;  b,  anvil  for  forming  head. 

enter  the  mould  (fig.  138,  a)  to  within  about  one-twentieth  of 
an  inch  of  the  end,  when  it  is  cut  off  with  the  ordinary  cutter. 
Chisel-edged  cogs  are  similarly  fitted  and  sharpened  and  cut  off 
on  a  special  anvil  (fig.  138,  h).  They  can  then  immediately  be 
hardened.  The  thickness  of  the  drift  at  its  widest  part  corre- 
sponds to  the  greatest  width  of  the  mould.  One  man  can  thus 
make  cogs  without  assistance. 

As  compared  with  screws,  cogs  have  certain  advantages, 
viz. : — 1.  They  never  break  off.  2.  Their  manufacture  and 
use  are  simpler.  3.  Being  so  cheap,  everyone  can  keep  a  few 
in  stock  and  affix  them  without  special  help. 


MEEITS   AND   DRAWBACKS   OF    FROST   COGS.  167 

Their  disadvantages,  however,  are : — 1.  That  even  with  care- 
ful fitting  they  are  sometimes  lost.  This  seldom  occurs  when 
the  cogs  are  inserted  by  the  farrier ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
favoured  by  the  horse  cutting.  When  the  snow  '  balls  '  in  the 
feet,  and  when  horses  are  going  up-hill  over  hard  roads,  the 
cogs  are  verv  liable  to  become  loose,  because  thev  fail  to  touch 
the  ground. 

2.  Cogs  are  difficult  to  renew  on  account  of  becoming  fixed 
in  position,  though  this  can  be  prevented  by  removing  them 
immediately  the  horse  returns  home.  To  facilitate  removal 
different  instruments  have  been  invented,  most  of  which,  how- 
ever, can  only  be  used  when  the  heels  are  very  long  ;  but  such 
heels  are  a  great  disadvantage,  especially  in  riding  horses. 
When  the  horse  is  worked  without  cogs  the  lower  margin  of  the 
hole  '  burrs  up,'  and  the  insertion  of  new  cogs  becomes  difficult. 
After  the  drift  has  been  in  use  for  some  time  its  edges  become 
rounded  and  the  cogs  no  longer  fit  the  holes  it  produces. 

5.  Shoes  with  Eemovable  Toe-grips. 

Koughing  by  the  insertion  of  one  or  two  ordinary  screws  in 
the  toe  of  the  shoe  has  long  been  practised.  Provided  animals 
thus  shod  are  not  used  on  stone  pavements  this  method 
succeeds ;  but  in  larcje  towns  screws  of  anv  form  soon  become 
loose  and  fall  out.  As  thev  have  afterwards  to  be  removed 
the  attendant  frequently  refrains  from  screwing  them  fully 
home :  hence  under  the  action  of  the  severe  strains  to  which 
they  are  exposed  they  are  soon  lost.  It  is  better  to  employ 
blanks,  which  can  be  screwed  in  firmly  at  first,  for  although 
this  certainly  does  not  get  rid  of  the  strains  to  which  the 
screw  is  exposed,  it  greatly  diminishes  the  number  of  lost 
screws. 

Toe-cogs  have  stood  the  test  of  many  years'  trial  and 
deserve  to  be  more  widely  employed.  The  simplest  forms  are 
the  best,  and  none  of  those  which  require  any  special  contriv- 
ance, such  as  a  wedge,  a  split  pin  or  screw,  to  prevent  loosening, 
can  be  regarded  as  practical.  The  chief  point  is  the  shape  of 
the  shank.  This  should  increase  in  thickness  about  1  in  7  or 
8 ;  when  less  tapered, — for  example,  1  in  10  or  1  in  12, — cogs 
at  first  become  too  firmly  fixed  and  are  difficult  of  removal,  and 


168 


WINTER   SHOEING. 


later  dilate  the  holes  so  that  the  crown  of  the  cog  conies  in 
contact  with  the  shoe ;  the  cog  then  becomes  loose  and  eventu- 
ally lost.  It  is  of  little  importance  whether  in  transverse  section 
the  shank  is  elongated,  rectangular,  or  oval,  though  it  is  very 
necessary  that  the  measurement  from  side  to  side  should  greatly 
exceed  that  from  before  to  behind. 

The  breadth,  thickness,  and  length  of  the  shank  may  vary 
within  considerable  limits,  according  to  the  weiglit  of  the  horse 
and  its  work.  In  heavy  horses,  to  which  toe-cogs  are  most 
applicable,  the   shank   may  be  |^   to  |-  inch  broad,  |-  inch  in 

thickness,  and  |-  inch  in  length  ;  for 
lighter  liorses  j\j  inch  in  breadth  by  |- 
inch  in  thickness  and  -L  inch  in  length, 
thickness,  and  breadth  measured  close 
below  the  head. 

(a)  Toe-grips  with  elongated  rectan- 
gular shanks  (fig.  139).  These  are 
manufactured  of  steel,  about  -J  inch  in 
breadth  and  ^  inch  thick.  The  shank 
is  first  forged,  the  head  then  formed  on 
an  anvil  with  an  oblicjue  face  and  so  far 

I'IG.  139. — Transverse  section  of    ^,,1.   4-K„^,,^r,      ^    ^    l       4-^      ^        •        i  1  • 

toe  of  grip-shoe  for  draught  ^ut  through  as  Only  to  rcquu^c  breaknig 
^^^^^'  off,  warming  to  a  white  heat  and  placing 

in  a  mould  of  the  necessary  sha|)e,  in  wliich  a  few  light  blows 
of  the  hammer  suffice  to  perfect  the  form. 

To  change  these  grips  a  thin  double-jawed  lever  with  wedge- 
shaped  head  (see  fig.  102)  is  driven  between  the  shoe  and  grip, 
which  is  then  loosened  by  a  few  blows  on  the  shoe. 

Shoes  intended  to  carry  these  toe-grips  must  be  somewhat 
thicker  than  usual  at  the  toe.  Heavy  shoes  should  be  from 
|-  inch  to  I  inch  and  light  shoes  from  1  inch  to  -f  inch  thick. 
This  prevents  dilatation  and  loosening.  The  dilatation  of  the 
opening  for  the  toe-grip  is  peculiar  and  does  not  occur  when 
cogs  are  used.  It  is  produced  by  the  enormous  pressure  to 
which  the  toe  is  exposed,  especially  in  hind-feet,  for  which 
reason  toe-grips  should  be  formed  of  a  more  conical  shape  than 
cogs. 

After  the  clip  has  l^een  drawn,  the  hole  for  the  grip  is 
punched  from  the  ground  towards  the  hoof  surface  and  the 
burr  thus  produced  on  the  foot  surface  filed  away,  a  drift  being 


TOE-GRIPS. 


169 


afterwards  driven  through  the  hole  to  give  it  its  finished  form. 
The  drift  should  be  a  little  smaller  than  the  shank  of  the  gi^ip, 
so  that  when  the  latter  is  inserted  its  head  will  not  come  in 
contact  with  the  shoe,  but  a  space,  from  ^V  ^^  tV  i^^^h,  be  left 
between  it  and  the  shoe,  so  as  to  allow  of  dilatation  being 
compensated  by  the  further  penetration  of  the  grip.  After 
fitting,  the  hole  is  once  more  drifted. 

(h)  Toe-grips  with  oval  shanks  (figs.  140  and  141)  are  made 
in  great  variety,  witli   and  without  safety  nails,  so  that  when 


Fig.  140. — Toe-grip  with  oval  shank 
and  nut. 


Fig.  141. — Transverse  section  of  shoe, 
grip,  and  safety  nail. 


tlie  aperture  for  the  grip  has  Ijecome  somewhat  dilated  a  rather 
larger  grip  can  be  used,  which  will  still  hold  well. 

(c)  Toe-grips  with  rounded  conical  shanks  are  made  with  a 
shank  about  ^V  inch  in  length  and  thickness,  which  diminishes 
towards    the   smaller   end    to   the   extent   of   ^ 


24 


to  Jg- 


inch. 

Opposite  the  shank  are  a  couple  of  ribs  about  yV  inch  in 
height  and  the  same  in  thickness,  which  prevent  the  grip 
rotating.  The  shoes,  machine-made,  are  yV  to  ^  inch  thicker 
around  the  aperture  than  at  other  parts. 
(d)  Malleable  iron  shoes  with  remov- 
able toe-grips.  These  have  a  grip-hole 
at  the  toe.  The  grip  is  held  firm  by  a 
thin  piece  of  fiexible  iron  plate,  which  is 
bent  and  inserted,  the  grip  being  then 
placed  in  position  and  fastened  by  a  few 
blows  of  the  hammer.  At  the  centre, 
near  the  inner  border  of  the  toe  of  the 
shoe,  is  a  depression  to  permit  of  a 
pointed  lever  being  passed  under  the 
iron  plate,  which,  once  removed,  allows 
the  grip  to  be  readily  taken  out.  Nevertheless,  when  horses 
are  worked  on  stone  roads,  tliese  grips  are  apt  to  l^ecome  loose 
(fig.  142). 


Fig.  142.— Patent  shoe  with  mov- 
able toe-grip.  The  middle  fig. 
shows  a  section  of  the  shoe. 


170  WINTER  SHOEING. 

To  prevent  snow  '  balling  '  in  the  feet,  specially  narrow  shoes, 
or  shoes  with  concave  ground  surfaces,  are  sometimes  used, 
whilst  in  other  cases  the  entire  ground  surface  of  the  hoof  is 
smeared  with  fat  or  soft  soap.  None  of  these  means,  however, 
is  perfectly  effectual.  The  only  reliable  remedy  is  some  form 
of  elastic  pad.  Among  the  oldest  and  best  known  are  Hart- 
mann's,  then  follow  pads  manufactured  of  felt,  leather,  cork, 
straw,  hemp,  and  gutta-percha.  The  last  named,  however,  in 
very  cold  weather  become  too  hard,  and  then  fail  to  act> 
Sheather's  pneumatic  pad  is  also  good. 


SECTIOjN^  II. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  FOOT  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ENTIRE  LIMB. 

The  shape  of  the  horse's  hoof  is  so  largely  influenced  by  the 
conformation  of  the  limb  to  which  it  is  attached,  that,  before 
proceeding  to  more  closely  study  the  former,  it  will  be  helpful 
to  devote  a  short  space  to  the  limb  itself.  The  variations  in 
conformation  of  the  limb  largely  determine  the  style  of  going, 
the  form  of  the  hoof,  and  the  distribution  of  weight.  These 
factors  deserve  our  best  consideration,  for  in  shoeing  sometimes 
one,  sometimes  another,  and  sometimes  all  three  become  of 
very  great  importance,  and,  broadly  speaking,  neither  the  trim- 
ming of  the  feet  nor  the  selection  and  fitting  of  the  shoe  can 
be  correctly  performed  without  an  intelligent  appreciation  of 
the  conformation  of  the  limb  and  its  action.  The  necessary 
knowledge  cannot  be  learnt  from  books.  More  can  be  gained 
from  the  study  of  large  diagrams ;  but  without  much  practice 
and  steady  observation  of  living  horses,  both  at  rest  and  in 
motion^  printed  instructions  are  of  little  value.  The  best  means 
of  all  is  study  under  the  direction  of  a  competent  teacher,  who 
will  amplify  his  lectures  by  demonstrations  on  the  living 
animal. 

1.  Conformation  of  the  Limbs. 

The  conformation  of  the  limbs  depends  upon  the  varying 
lengths  of  the  individual  bones,  and  upon  the  angles  which 
they  make  one  with  another.  Horses,  however,  do  not  always 
move  as  one  might  anticipate,  and  the  observer,  before  coming 
to  an  opinion,  should  view  the  horse  both  at  rest  and  in  motion. 


17: 


THE    FOOT   IN    ITS    RELATION   TO   THE    ENTIRE   LIMB. 


(a)  The  position  of  the  fore-limbs  when  seen  from  the 
front  is  normal  (fig.  143),  when  the  limbs  vertically  support 

the  body.  A  plumb  bob  let  fall  from 
the  centre  of  the  shoulder  joint  should 
coincide  with  the  mesial  plane  of  the 
limb  or  divide  the  limb  into  two 
equal  parts.  The  fore-legs  should  be 
separated  to  a  moderate  extent,  in 
order  that  the  animal  may  have  a 
fairly  large  base  of  support,  be  sure 
on  liis  feet,  and  not  be  likely  to  strike 
himself  in  moving.  A  certain  separa- 
tion is  also  needful  to  accommodate 
the  great  pectoral  muscles.  The 
separation  of  the  limbs  should  be  ap- 
proximately equal  in  front  and  behind. 
The  base  of  support  then  takes  the 
form  of  a  parallelogram,  and  the  im- 
pulse of  the  hind-limb  is  conveyed  in 
a  direction  parallel  to  the  direction  of 
movement  of  the  whole  body,  a  con- 
dition which  makes  for  stability  and 
allows  all  the  power  developed  by  the 
hind-lim1js  to  be  utilised  in  forward 
movement.  In  simple  language,  when  the  hind-limbs  are  not 
in  line  with  the  front  they  tend  to  push  the  body  more  or  less 
to  one  side  instead  of  straisjht  forward. 

When  the  toes  are  turned  out  (fig.  1-14)  the  plumb  bob  will 
fall  towards  the  inner  side ;  the  chest  is  narrow,  the  limbs  run 
obliquely  downwards  and  outwards,  and  the  body-weight  falls 
more  on  the  inner  halves  of  the  feet.  Animals  with  this  con- 
formation are  usually  surefooted,  but  as  the  limb  is  not  moved 
straight  forwards  but  in  the  arc  of  a  circle  they  are  more 
readily  tired  than  those  of  normal  formation,  the  inside  of  the 
limb  is  surcharged  with  weight,  and  the  pace  is  relatively 
slow. 

Again,  in  the  calf-kneed  condition,  where  the  knees  are  too 
close,  the  feet  too  far  apart  (fig.  145),  we  have  perhaps  the 
maximum  of  undesirable  factors.  In  this  conformation  either 
the  foot  or  the  entire  limb  may  be  turned  outwards. 


Fig.  143.— Normal  position  of 
fore-limbs. 


CONFORMATION   OF   FORE-LIMB. 


173 


TurDed-in  toes  are  found  in  conjunction  with  a  very  broad 
chest.  The  limbs  run  downwards  and  inwards  ;  the  pkimb  bob 
would  then  fall  outwardly  as  does  the  greater  part  of  the 
weidit.  This  defect  renders  the  action  clumsy,  and  if  the 
animal  should  stumble  makes  it  very  difficult  for  him  to  recover. 
A  particular  form  of  this  abnormality  is  shown  in  tig.  146. 
Sometimes  the  limb  is  normal  as  far  as  the  fetlock,  below 
which  it  turns  inwards,  producing  a  condition  termed  '  pigeon- 
toed.' 

The  position  of  the  fore-limbs,  when  viewed  from  the  side,  is 
normal  when  a  vertical  line  let  fall  from  the  centre  of  the 
scapula  divides  the  limb  from  the  elbow  to  the  fetlock  joint  in 


Fig.  144.— Turned-out 
toes. 


Fig.  145.— Calf-kneed 
forniiitiou. 


Fig.  146.— Pio;eon-toed 
formation. 


halves,  and  strikes  the  ground  close  behind  the  bulbs  of  the 
heel. 

Another  method  of  stating  the  above  is  to  say  that,  seen 
from  the  side,  the  limb  should  be  perpendicular  from  the  region 
of  the  fore-arm  to  that  of  the  fetlock.  ^  It  is  evident  that,  when 
the  limbs  are  thus  perpendicular  to  the  ground,  they  are  best 
fitted  for  supporting  the  weight  of  the  body,  like  a  column, 
which  should  always  be  perpendicularly  under  the  point  to  be 
supported. 

The  axis  of  the  foot,  that  is,  of  the  os  suffraginis,  os  corona?, 
and  OS  pedis,  and  the  toe  of  the  hoof  form  an  angle  of  about 
45*"  to  50°  with  the  horizontal  plane.  From  this  position  there 
are  variations  both  in  a  forward  and  backward  direction ;  the 


174 


THE   FOOT   IN   ITS   KELATION   TO   THE   ENTIRE   LIMB. 


body-weight  in  the  former  case  falling  more  on  the  anterior,  in 
the  latter  on  the  posterior  half  of  the  hoof. 

Goyau  states  that,  given  normal  conditions,  the  resultant  of 
the  body-weight  may  be  represented  as  passing  through  the 
centre  of  the  foot.  I.e.,  through  the  line  formed  by  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  longitudinal  and  transverse  axes,  and  that  any 
reduction  of  the  weight-bearing  surface  of  the  hoof,  either  in 
front,  behind,  or  on  either  side,  brings  the  part    so  reduced 


Fig.  147.— Normal  conformation  of  limbs  as  viewed  from  the  side. 


nearer  the  centre  of  transmission  of  weight,  and  hence  causes  it 
to  be  unduly  loaded,  inasmuch  as  each  unit  of  surface  carries 
relatively  more  weight. 

Pader  has  studied  this  subject  very  carefully  by  means  of 
an  ingenious  apparatus  of  his  own,  and,  although  we  cannot 
describe  his  experiments  at  length,  we  may  state  his  conclusions, 
which  are  as  follows  : — 

1,  At  rest,  the  centre  of  transmission  of  weight  falls  in 
front  of  the  centre  of  the  sole,  about  midway  between  the  centre 
of  the  sole  and  the  point  of  the  frog. 


DISTEIBUTION   OF   WEIGHT   IN    FORE-LIMB. 


175 


2.  The  centre  of  transmission  of  weicrht  falls  further  back 
as  the  pastern  is  more  inclined. 

3.  Lifting  the  opposite  limb,  and  thus  throwing  increased 
weight  on  that  under  observation,  causes  bending  of  the  fet- 
lock, and  displaces  the  centre  of  weight  backwards. 

4.  The  centre  of  weight  never  falls  further  forward  than  the 
point  of  the  frog  nor  further  back  than  the  posterior  third  of 
the  total  length  of  the  foot. 

By  the  conformation  shown  in  lig.  148  the  base  of  support  is 
certainly  increased  in  front,  though  this  is  more  often  an  ap- 
parent than  a  real  gain,  because  the  animal  then  usually  stands 
with  his  hind-legs  somewhat  advanced.      The  strain  of  support- 


FlG.  148. 


Fig.  149. 


Fig.  150. 


ing  the  body  falls  more  on  the  tendons  than  on  the  bones,  and 
the  weight  more  on  the  heel  of  the  foot  than  on  the  toe.  The 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  trunk  is  displaced  backwards  and  the 
loins  and  hocks  are  exposed  to  excessive  stress. 

On  account  of  the  fore-limbs  being  already  so  far  in  advance 
the  stride  is  short  and  the  pace  comparatively  slow.  This  con- 
formation is  often  acquired  as  a  result  of  disease. 

Backward  incurvation  of  the  knee  (fig.  149)  is  a  fault,  inas- 
much as  the  knee  itself  is  badly  developed  and  the  bending 
stress  caused  by  the  body-weight  falls  on  the  ligaments,  etc., 
at  the  back  of  the  joint.      Flexion  of  the  knee  joint,  moreover,  is 


176 


THE   FOOT   IN   ITS   RELATION    TO   THE   ENTIRE   LIMB. 


not  at  once  followed  by  lifting  of  the  knee,  as  the  limb  has 
first  to  become  perpendicular  and  then  move  slightly  forward 
before  its  total  length  is  diminished.  Horses  with  this  forma- 
tion are  liable  to  trip  and  have  difficulty  in  recovering  them- 
selves. Fig.  150  shows  a  limb,  otherwise  normal,  but  with 
excessively  oblique  pasterns. 


Fig.  151. — Upright  pastern  and  limb. 


VlG.  152.— Bowing  over  at  knees. 


Horses  with  very  upright  or  forwardly  inclined  limbs,  i.e., 
horses  which  '  stand  over'  in  front  (fig.  151)  and  whose  shoulders 
are  '  loaded,'  are  insecure  on  their  feet,  firstly,  because  this  posi- 
tion entails  shortening  of  the  base  of  support,  and  secondly, 
because  when  they  slip  there  is  difficulty  in  advancing  the  leg 
sufficiently  to  prevent  the  body  coming  to  the  ground.  The 
fore-limbs  carry  more  than  their  fair  share  of  weight,  they 
cannot  be  sufficiently  advanced  at  fast  paces,  the  toe  is  apt  to 
catch  in  the  ground  and  the  animal  to  fall,  the  fore  shoes  may 
be  trodden  off  and  the  horse  is  prone  to  forge. 

Such  conformation  entails  fatigue  and  wear  of  the  limbs, 
and  predisposes  to  knuckling  at  the  fetlock,  especially  in  hacks 
where  the  body-weight  is  supplemented  by  that  of  the  rider. 

Fig.  152  is  a  more  advanced  stage  of  the  condition  shown 
in  fig.  151.  This  attitude  appears  to  be  assumed  by  the 
horse  in  order  to  relie^•e  the  overcharged  tendons  of  weight, 
though  it  may  also  be  due  to  contraction  of  the  tendons  or  to 


CONFORMATION   OF   HIND-LIMB. 


177 


disease  of  the  feet.  It  is  usually  seen  in  horses  in  which  the 
pasterns  are  fairly  long  and  oblique,  and  where  '  knuckling  at 
the  fetlock '  is  not  to  be  expected.  Where  the  pastern  is  short 
and  upright,  on  the  other  hand,  knuckling  at  the  fetlock  is  the 
commoner  condition. 

(&)  The  hind-limbs  are  normal  (fig.  153)  when  a  vertical  line 
let  fall  from  the  point  of  the  ischium  divides  the  limb  (seen 
from  behind)  into  two  equal  parts.  When  viewed  from  the 
side,  however,  the  line  should  touch  the  os  calcis  and  fall  a 


Fig.  153. — Normal  position 
of  limbs. 


Fig.  154.— Hocks 
turned  in. 


Fig.  155.— Hocks 
turned  out. 


short  distance  behind  the  bulbs  of  the  heel.  A  vertical 
line  let  fall  from  the  middle  of  the  hip  joint  should  meet  the 
outer  quarter  of  the  hoof.  The  hind  like  the  fore  limbs  may 
be  bent  outwards  or  inwards.  The  hocks  may  be  turned  either 
in  (fig.  154)  or  out  (fig.  155)  or  excessively  curved  (fig.  156), 
the  lower  portion  of  the  limb  being  then  too  oblique  ;  or,  lastly, 
the  limb  may  be  placed  too  far  back  (fig.  157).  This  confor- 
mation, though  at  first  almost  advantageous  and  conducing  to 
speed,  is  associated  after  much  work  with  partial  luxation  of 


178 


THE   FOOT   IN   ITS   RELATION   TO   THE   ENTIRE   LIMB. 


the  fetlock  joint  and  more  or  less  pronounced  spasmodic  jerk- 
ing of  the  fetlock  (knuckling  over)  in  certain  phases  of  move- 
ment.     It  is  quite  possible  for  each  of  the  two  fore  or  two 


Fig.  156.— Excessively  curved  hocks. 
Limbs  too  far  under  the  body. 


Fig.  157.— Entire  liind-limb  placed 
too  far  back. 


hind  limbs  to  take  different  directions.  It  is  commonest  for 
one  pair,  for  instance  the  front,  to  be  turned  out,  the  other 
pair,  the  hind,  to  be  turned  in,  or  vice  versa.  Other  slight 
differences  occur,  but  are  not  of  great  importance  to  the  farrier. 


2.  General  Conformation  of  the  Feet,  when  viewed 
FROM  in  Front,  Behind,  and  the  Side. 

In  a  state  of  nature  the  hoof  always  corresponds,  and  is 
suited,  to  the  formation  of  the  limb  to  which  it  belongs,  but 
immediately  a  shoe  is  applied,  the  horn  ceases  to  wear,  and 
instead  of  the  formation  of  the  limb  determining  that  of  the 
hoof,  exactly  the  opposite  may  occur.  This  can  be  demonstrated 
experimentally.  Given  an  animal  of  normal  conformation,  a 
perpendicular  line  is  traced  on  the  leg  from  the  knee  to  the 
earth.  If,  now,  the  inside  of  the  hoof  be  much  lowered,  the 
erstwhile  straight  line  will  be  seen  to  form  an  angle  outwards 
at  the  coronet,  while  if  the  outer  quarter  be  cut  away,  precisely 
the  opposite  occurs.      At  the  same  time,  the  limbs  will  be  seen 


CONFOiniATION   OF   FOOT. 


179 


in  the  first  case  to  recede  slightly  from  one  another,  causing  the 
animal  to  go  *  wide/  in  the  second  case  to  approach,  causing 
the  animal  to  go  '  close.'  This  conhrms  Moorcroft's  experi- 
ments on  animals  which  cut  or  brush. 

But  it  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  on  that  the  loioering 
of  one  side  of  the  hoof  can  have  little  effect  on  the  general 
direction  of  the  Zm??5,  because,  owing  to  all  the  lower  joints  being 
gingiymoid  or  hinge-like,  movement  is  confined  almost  entirely 
to  the  backward  or  forward  directions.      For  this  reason  lower- 


FlG.  158.  Fig.  159. 

Fig.  158.— Pail-  of  uonnal  feet  seen  from  in  front ;  and  159,  from  behind. 


Fig.  160.  Fig.  l(ji. 

Figs.  160  and  161. — Form  of  feet  where  toes  are  turned  outwanls. 


ing  the  inner  or  outer  side  of  th^  hoof  only  produces  a  very 
slight  alteration  in  the  distance  between  the  fetlocks. 

However  diverse  the  variations  in  conformation  of  the  limb, 
the  changes  they  produce  in  the  form  of  the  hoof  are  all  in- 
cluded under  one  of  the  three  forms  now  to  be  described.  By 
bearing  in  mind  the  principles  enunciated,  the  form  to  be  given 
to  the  hoof  and  the  choice  of  the  shoe  will  be  greatly  assisted. 

Seen  respectively  from  in  front  and  behind,  the  form  of  the 
foot  will  be  either  normal  (figs.  158  and  159),  or  that  peculiar 


180 


THE   FOOT   IN  ITS   RELATION  TO   THE   ENTIRE   LIMB. 


to  turned-out  or  turned-in  feet  (figs.   160  and  161,  162  and 
163). 

The  imaginary  straight  line  drawn  through  the  os  suffraginis, 
OS  coronae,  and  os  pedis,  which  we   term  the  foot  axis  (see  figs. 


Fig.  1C2.  Fig.  i6o. 

Figs.  162  and  163.— Form  of  feet  whtie  toes  are  turned  inward. 


Fig.  164. — a,  foot  of  normal  limb,  and  b,  foot  of  abnormal  limb,  in  which,  by  irregular 
trimming,  the  'foot  axis'  has  been  distorted.  Tlie  dotted  lines  show  the  proper  rela- 
tions of  the  hoofs  to  their  respective  limbs. 


Fig.  165.— Abnormally  flat 
(oblique)  hoof. 


I'IG.  1C6.— Normal  hoof. 


Fig.  167.— Upright  hoof. 


158,  162,  165  to   167),  indicates  whether  the  hoof  and  fetlock 
are  or  are  not  normally  related. 

In  the  normal  position  (fig.  158)  this  line  runs  directly  for- 


THE   FOOT   AXIS.  181 

wards  and  downwards,  in  the  out-tnrned  toe  position  obliquely 
outwards,  and  in  the  in-turned  toe  (fig.  162)  obliquely  inwards. 

Viewing  the  foot  from  the  side  we  distinguish  a  normal 
position  of  the  foot  axis  (fig.  166),  and  may  term  all  variations 
from  this  in  a  forward  direction  as  oblique  (fig.  165)  and  all 
variations  in  a  backward  direction  as  upright  (fig.  167). 

Speaking  generally,  the  foot  axis,  shown  in  figs.  165  and 
167  as  a  dotted  line,  should  follow  a  straight  course  in  each  of 
the  four  feet,  provided  the  limbs  are  all  bearing  weight.  Any 
deviation  from  this  straight  line,  as  shown  in  fig.  168,  is 
abnormal.  Durino:  rest,  the  wall  of  the  toe  and  the  foot  axis 
should  be  almost  or  quite  parallel  with  each  other.  It  is 
allowable  in  shoeing  to  leave  the  toe  of  the  foot  a  tritie  more 
upright  than  the  general  axis  of  the  pastern. 

The  direction  of  the  foot  axis  is  of  great  importance  in  the 
practice  of  shoeing.  The  oblique  foot  (fig.  165)  forms  an  angle 
of  less  than  4:5°  with  the  ground,  and,  compared  with  the  two 
other  forms,  its  hoof  has  a  long  toe  and  low  heels.  In  the 
normal  position  (fig.  166)  the  angle  is  about  45^  to  55°,  the 
toe  being  shorter  and  the  heels  higher  than  in  the  oblique  foot. 

Theorists  have  described  the  correct  angle  of  the  hoof  and 
pastern  as  45°,  claiming  that  it  ensures  equal  distribution  of  the 
weight  of  the  body  between  the  column  of  bones  and  the 
tendons,  but  animals  so  formed  are  not  considered  well  shaped 
by  the  best  judges ;  the  pastern  is  too  sloping. 

It  is  clear  that,  as  there  is  no  danger  of  injury  to  the  bones 
from  shock  when  the  animal  is  at  rest,  it  would  be  advantage- 
ous could  these  support  a  greater  proportion  of  weight  than  the 
tendons  and  suspensory  ligament,  which  would  be  correspond- 
ingly relieved.  On  the  other  hand,  when,  during  movement, 
the  limb  comes  violently  in  contact  w^ith  the  ground,  the  major 
part  of  the  weight  should  fall  on-  the  tendons,  etc.,  and  thus 
shield  from  injury  the  bones,  which  must  otherwise  certainly  be 
fractured. 

General  opinion  seems  to  regard  the  best  angle  as  somewliat 
less  than  50°  for  front  feet  and  as  50°  or  somewhat  more  for 
hind.  The  greater  length  and  obliquity  of  the  pastern  in  fore- 
limbs  compensates  for  the  greater  weight  and  the  more  violent 
shocks  experienced ;  length  and  obliquity  being  factors  emin- 
ently favourable   to  neutralising  concussion. 


182  THE   FOOT   IN    ITS   RELATION    TO   THE    ENTIRE    LIMB. 

When  the  angle  is  above  55^  (fig.  167)  the  height  of  the 
heels  naturally  increases  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  length 
of  the  toe  diminishes.      The  same  conditions  rule  in   hind-feet, 


I'lG.  1(J8.— T\vt>  ieet  viewed  from  tlie  side,  a,  witli 
foot  axis  distorted  in  a  backward  direction  : 
/y,  in  a  forward  direction.  The  arrows  indicate 
the  proper  position  of  the  fetlock,  wliich  is 
given  in  dotted  ontline.  In  a  the  toe  and  in  J> 
the  heels  require  shorteniiii;. 


Fig.  1(59.  —  Peculiar  distor- 
tion, in  which  the  os  pedis 
becomes  upright,  while  the 
sutfraginis  is  niucli  in- 
clined. 


with  the  exception,  however,  that  the  angle  formed  with  the 
earth  is  here  somewhat  greater. 

A  peculiar  position  of  this  kind  is  shown  in  fig.  169,  in 
which  the  foot  axis  is  bent,  the  os  pedis  being  much  more 
upright  than  the  suffraginis,  the  hoof  following  the  direction 
of  the  OS  pedis. 

3.  The  Method  of  advancing  the  Hoof 

varies  even  when  the  animal  is  moving  on  level  ground 
and  not  drawing  a  load.  In  the  normal  form  of  the  limb  the 
hoof  is  moved  almost  straight  forwards  (fig.  170).  The  toe 
points  in  a  forward  direction  and  the  hoof  is  set  down  flat. 
But  the  converse  is  by  no  means  true,  i.e.,  the  foot  may  be 
perfectly  shaped,  the  proportions  of  its  various  parts  absolutely 
normal,  but  the  formation  of  the  limb,  and  therefore  the  style 
of  going,  quite  defective.  Defects  of  conformation  in  the  limb, 
though  little  marked  when  at  rest,  often  appreciably  affect  the 
style  of  moving.  In  horses  of  normal  formation  the  limbs 
are  flexed  and  advanced  in  a  direction  parallel  to  that  of  move- 
ment or  of  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  body. 

When  the  horse  is  viewed  from  behind  the  hind-limb 
'  covers  '  the  front,  when  from  in  front  the  fore-limb  '  covers ' 
the  hind :   at  a  trot  the  ric^ht  and  left  fore  and  hind  limbs 


METHOD  OF  ADVANCING  THE  HOOF. 


183 


respectively  are  separated  to  a  sufficient  distance,  and  are 
moved  in  perfect  time ;  the  limbs  are  neither  lifted  too  much 
nor  too  little,  so  that  while  there  is  no  loss  of  time  there  is 
also  no  danger  of  catching  the  toe  and  falling. 

The  method  of  carrying  the  limb  is  not  affected  by  the  form 
given  to  the  hoof,  though  disproportion  in  any  part  of  the  latter 
has  a  marked  effect  on  the  pace.     For  instance,  as  the  limb 


CD 


(!) 


(!) 


Q 


(!) 


Q' 


(!) 


0 


0 


0 


"0 


"K 


Fig.  170. 


Fig.  171. 


"W 


Fig.  172. 


Q 


Q 


Q 


swings  in  the  arc  of  a  circle  around  the  toe,  as  around  a  fixed 
point,  prior  to  leaving  the  ground,  the  longer  the  toe  is  left, 
the  longer  does  this  swinging  continue ;  hence  loss  of  time  in 
raising  and  advancing  the  limb.  Low  heels  and  a  long  toe  are 
therefore  obstacles  to  speed. 

When  the  toes  turn  out,  the  hoof  is  moved  forwards,  in- 


184  THE   FOOT   IN   ITS   RELATION   TO   THE    ENTIRE   LIMB. 

wards,  and  again  outwards  (fig.  171)  in  a  circular  direction, 
the  outer  wall  of  the  toe  coming  first  in  contact  with  the 
ground  and  sustaining  the  greatest  part  of  the  impact.  The 
toe  here  points  either  directly  forwards  or  outwards.  In 
the  in-turned  toe  form  things  are  reversed,  the  hoof  being 
carried  forwards,  outwards,  and  again  inwards  (fig.  172). 
The  manner  in  which  the  hoofs  are  moved  is  shown  semi- 
schematically  in  figs.  170,  171,  and  17li.  No  absolute  rule 
can,  of  course,  be  laid  down  and  many  deviations  occur,  re- 
sulting partly  from  peculiarities  in  direction  of  individual  bones 
and  consequent  irregularities  in  movement,  from  pace,  that 
is,  whether  the  horse  walk  or  trot,  from  the  way  in  which 
the  animal's  weight  is  distributed  between  his  fore  and  hind 
limbs,  and  from  the  position  and  amount  of  the  load  which  the 
horse  either  draws  or  carries.  The  four  feet  of  any  one  horse 
seldom  correspond  exactly  in  direction;  one  pair  may  point 
outwards,  the  other  inwards,  the  hoofs  being  correspondingly 
advanced.  Sometimes  a  defect  in  one  part  of  the  limb 
counterbalances  a  defect  in  another,  so  that,  although  close 
attention  will  enable  us  to  classify  the  conformation  and 
action  with  which  we  have  to  deal,  yet  judging  of  gait  will 
always  be  a  matter  of  difficulty  for  beginners  and  for  the 
unskilled. 

Deviations  from  normal  conformation  are  always  a  draw- 
back to  the  performance  of  work.  When  strongly  pronounced, 
and  especially  when  two  or  more  defects  occur  in  one  limb, 
they  greatly  predispose  to  striking,  cutting,  and  to  disease  of 
joints  and  of  the  foot. 

The  course  followed  by  the  hoof  when  viewed  from  one  side 
(figs.  173,  174,  and  175)  is  of  less  importance  to  the  farrier. 
In  normally  formed  limbs  it  is  regular  (fig.  173).  When  the 
fetlock  is  very  oblique,  however,  the  hoof  at  first  traces  a 
sharp  curve,  which  soon  becomes  more  flattened  and  is  pro- 
longed forwards  before  meeting  the  earth  (fig.  174).  In  the 
case  of  upright  fetlocks  the  lifting  and  advancing  of  the  hoof  is 
performed  in  precisely  reversed  order.  The  shock  to  the  foot 
and  limb  is  evidently  least  in  the  style  of  movement  shown  by 
fig.  174  and  greatest  in  that  shown  by  fig.  175.  As  every 
rider  knows,  the  pace  in  the  former  case  is  easy,  in  the  latter 
rough  and  unpleasant. 


ACTION   OF   THE   LIMBS. 


185 


From  the  foregoing  may  be  deduced  two  principles  for  the 
practice  of  shoeing,  viz. : — (1)  The  normal  form  of  the  hoof 
should  be  preserved  or  restored,  hiot  with  due  regard  to  the 
conformation  of  the  limhs  and  to  the  animal's  action.  (2)  The 
functions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  foot  must  be  aroused  to 
full  activity. 

In  regard  to  the  first,  the  normal  form  of  the  foot  is  under- 
stood  to  be  that  which   would   result   were   the  animal  unshod 


Fig.  173. 


Fig.  174. 


Fig.  175. 

and  in  a  state  of  nature.  It  need  scarcely  be  said  that,  given 
this  normal  form,  the  balance  of  the  limb  must  not  be  dis- 
turbed by  inequalities  of  thickness  in  different  parts  of  the 
shoe,  but  that  the  hoof  surface  of  the  shoe  must  lie  in  a  hori- 
zontal plane. 

Eespecting  the  second,  it  is  indispensable  that  the  frog  and 
sole  come  in  contact  with  the  ground.  One  must  not  forget 
that  expansion  of  the  foot  depends  entirely  on  the  action  of  the 
plantar  cushion,  and  therefore  primarily  on  frog-pressure. 

4.  Form  of  the  Hoof. 


The  normal  front  hoof  (lig.  176)  shows  little  difference  in 
the  direction  and  thickness  of  its  inner  and  outer  walls.  The 
outer  is  slightly  thicker  and  rather  less  upright  than  the  inner 


186 


THE   FOOT   IX    ITS   RELATION    TO   THE   EXTIIIE    LIMB. 


(compare  figs.  158  and  159).  In  consequence,  it  describes  a 
somewhat  larger  curve,  as  is  seen  on  examining  the  bearing 
and  coronary  borders.  The  height  of  the  heel,  in  comparison 
with  that  of  the  quarter  and  toe,  is  approximately  as  1:2:3^ 
or  as  1 1- :  2  :  o.  The  toe  forms  an  angle  of  about  45°  to  50° 
with  the  earth  (compare  with  fig.  166),  and  when  viewed 
from  the  side  its  direction  corresponds  with  that  of  the 
suffraginis. 

When  the  limbs  are  straddled  (as  in  tig.  144),  the  hoof  (tig. 
177)  is  always  more  oblique,  because  the  outer  part  of  the  wall 
is  naturally   somewhat  longer   and   stands  more   obliquely    in 

relation  to  the  ground  than 
the  inner  (compare  fi<'S. 
160  and  161).  The  outer 
bearing  margin  of  the  hoof 
describes  a  wide  curve, 
the  greatest  prominence 
of  which  is  at  the  point 
where  the  quarter  joins 
the  heel ;  the  inner,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  straighter, 
consequently  the  outer 
division  of  the  hoof  is 
broader  than  the  inner. 
So    long    as    the   hoof    is 


Fig.  176.— Xormal  rislit  fore-foot/ 


healthy,  the  limbs  of  the 
frog  are  equally  devel- 
oped. The  obliquity  of 
the  hoof  results  from  the  form  of  the  leg,  and  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  obliquity  produced  by  disease. 

When  the  toes  alone  are  turned  out  (as  shown  in  fig.  145), 
the  hoof  (fig.  178)  differs  from  the  foregoing  in  that  the  circum- 
ference of  the  bearing  margin  is  less  curved  at  the  outer  border 
of  the  toe  and  the  inner  heel  than  at  the  inner  portion  of  the 
toe  and  the  outer  heel.  In  consequence,  two  deep  and  two 
shallow  curves  lie  opposite  one  another.      The  toe  of  the  hoof 

*  The  artist  has  slightly  exaggerated  the  thickness  of  the  wall  at  the  heel. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  owing  to  the  reflection  of  the  bars,  the 
wall  at  this  point  is  apparently  reinforced,  and  that,  as  the  wall  is  worn  away 
obliquely,  it  hoks  thicker  than  it  in  reality  is. 


F0K3I  OF  HOOF  AS  RELATED  TO  CONFORMATION. 


18- 


points  outwards,  the  foot  is  not  brought   level   to  the  ground 
but  with  the  outer  wall  of  the  toe  first. 

When  the  toes  are  turned  in  (as  in  fig.  146)  a  somewhat 
similar,  but  less  pronounced,  form  of  hoof  is  developed.  The 
inner  wall  is  less  oblique  than  the  outer,  as  is  best  seen  at  the 
quarters  (figs.  162  and  163).  The  lower  outer  margin  more 
nearly  resembles  that  of  the  ordinary  hoof,  but  the  wall  of 
the  inner  quarter  and  heel  describes  a  somewhat  greater  curve. 
Not  infrequently  the  outer  heel  wall  appears  contracted.  This 
form  of  hoof  is  commonest  in  horses  which   bring  the  foot  to 


i'lG.  177.— Eight  fore-foot  (out-turneil  toe). 


Fig.  17S.— Kight  fore-foot  (iu-tiuued  toe). 


the  ground  toe  first.  Front  feet  are  almost  invariably  round 
at  the  toe. 

The  foreo'oino-  remarks  as  to  the  influence  of  limb  conforma- 
tion  in  determining  shape  of  hoof  apply  in  most  respects  t<:> 
hind  as  well  as  to  fore  feet.  The  hind-foot  (fig.  179)  is  not 
round,  but  elongated  or  oval  at  the  toe.  Its  greatest  width  is 
at  the  commencement  of  the  posterior  third.  The  sole  is 
usually  more  concave  and  the  wall,  seen  from  the  side,  some- 
what more  upright  than  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  front 
hoof;  the  angle  which  the  toe  forms  with  the  ground  varies 
between  50^  and  55". 

At  times,  moreover,  one  sees  unusuallv  wide  or  narrow  feet, 
the  shape  of  which  is  not  due  to  the  position  of  the  limbs,  but 
to  inborn  peculiarities  of  the  various  breeds. 

The   '  wide '   hoof  (fig.   180)  is    broad,  almost  circular  ;    its 


188 


THE   FOOT   IN   ITS    RELATION    TO   THE   ENTIRE   LIMB. 


wall  obliquely  inclined  towards  the  ground,  the  sole  slightly 
concave,  and  the  frog  strong  and  massive.     The  narrow  hoof 


/r  /:     ^ 


Fig.  179. — Xormal  richt  hind-hoof. 


(fig.  181)  is  elongated,  has  upright  quarters,  a  strongly  concave 
sole,  and  comparatively  a  small  frog  of  fine  and  tough  fibres ; 
in  the  opposite  form  the  horn  fil)res  are   usually  much  larger. 


Fig.  180.— Wide  '  spreading '  hoof. 


Fig.  181.— Narrow  hoof. 


In  the  wide-spreading  hoof  there  is  a  tendency  to  separation  of 
the  wall  and  to  flattening  or  dropping  of  the  sole. 

Figs.  165,  166,  and  167  represent  respectively  the  normal. 


PKOPOKTIONS   OF   HOOF. 


189 


the  oblique,  and  the  upright  foot.  A  few  remarks  on  the  forms 
of  hoof  belonging  to  these  respectively  may  here  be  appropriate. 
In  the  first  place,  the  wall  of  the  toe  should  correspond  in 
direction  with  the  general  axis  of  the  three  terminal  bones  of 
the  digit,  and  just  as  one  speaks  of  an  oblique  or  upright  foot, 
so  one  might  speak  of  the  corresponding  forms  of  hoof.  In 
the  normal  hoof  the  wall  of  the  toe  forms  an  angle  of  45°  to  55° 
with  the  ground  (fig.  166).  When  the  angle  is  less  than  45° 
the  hoof  may  be  described  as  oblique  (fig.  165).  Such  a  hoof 
has  comparatively  a  long  toe  and  low  heels.  When,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  angle  is  greater  than  55°,  the  hoof  is  upright 
(fig.  167),  possessing  a  comparatively  short  toe  but  high  heels. 
In  the  latter  the  anterior,  in  the  former  the  posterior,  half  of 
the  hoof  carries  the  greater  weight.  The  proportion  already 
stated  approximately  as  1  :  2  :  3  or  1^  :  2  :  3,  which  should  exist 
between  the  height  of  the  wall  at  the  heel,  quarter,  and  toe, 
is  naturally  disturbed  in  changes  of  other  parts  of  the  hoof. 
The  above  is  true  of  hind  as  well  as  of  fore  hoofs,  though  in 
general  the  normal  hind  hoof  is  about  5°  more  upright  than 
the  fore. 

The  following  summarised  account  from  Lesbre  and  Peuch 
sets  forth,  from  another  standpoint,  approximately  the  same 
\iews  expressed  in  the  foregoing  pages. 

The  walls  of  the  quarters  in  fore-feet  form  an  angle  of  10° 
to  12°  with  the  vertical ;  in  hind- feet  of  6°  to  8°.      In  fore- 


FIG.  182. 


Fig.  183. 


feet  the  coronary  circumference  is  about  -g-  that  of  the  plantar ; 
in  hind-feet  about  y.  Viewed  from  the  side,  the  toe  of  the 
fore  foot  forms  an  angle  of  nearly  50°  with  the  ground;  that 
of  the  hind  an  angle  of  55°.  The  heel  is  nearly  parallel  with 
the  toe,  and  should  be  at  least  half  ns  high. 


190 


THE   FOOT   IN   ITS   RELATION   TO   THE   ENTIIIE   LIMB. 


In  the  fore  foot  the  height  of  the  toe  usually  equals  |-  the 
length  of  the  sole,  and  in  the  hind  -j^.  The  length  of  the  sole 
varies  little  in  the  fore  and  hind  feet  of  the  same  animal,  the 
apparent  difference  depending  on  the  narrower  shape  of  the 
hind- foot. 

Compared  with  that  of  the  plantar  margin,  the  length  of  the 
coronary  margin  in  fore-feet  is  as  9:10;  in  hind-feet  a  little 
more. 

Viewed  from  below,  the  foot  is  almost  as  broad  as  long.      In 


Fig.  1S4. 


Fig.  185. 


contour  it  resembles  the  segment  of  an  oval.  The  sole  is  thick 
and  arched.  The  degree  of  concavity  depends  on  the  size  of 
the  foot.  The  frog  is  strong,  firm,  and  resistant  to  the  pressure 
of  the  thumb.     AVhen  the  foot  is  lifted,  it  should  stand  higher 


Fig.  186. 


Fig.  187. 


than  the  level  of  the  wall,  and  therefore,  during  movement, 
should  meet  the  ground  before  the  quarters  and  heels. 

The  bars,  which  participate  in  bearing  weight,  should  be 
strong  and  prominent,  and  should  be  on  the  same  level  as  the 
plantar  margin  of  the  wall,  at  least  up  to  a  point  opposite  the 
middle  of  the  frog.  In  some  feet  the  weight-bearing  surface 
includes  the  lower  surface  of  the  frog,  all  of  the  sole,  and  the 
lower  margin  of  the  wall ;  in  others  only  those  portions  of  the 
sole  bordering;  on  the  wall  are  included  in  it. 


CHAKACTEKISTICS   OF   THE   SOUND   HOOF.  191 

Variations  in  the  direction  of  the  foot  axis  and  in  the  form 
of  the  hoof  naturally  alter  the  distribution  of  pressure  in  the 
joints,  and  when  due  to  faulty  shoeing,  and  especially  when 
exaggerated,  are  of  grave  importance.  Oblique  hoofs,  particu- 
larly if  shod  so  as  to  raise  the  frog  from  contact  with  the 
ground,  are  apt  to  show  contraction  of  the  heels,  whereas  in 
normal  hoofs  the  change  either  fails  to  occur  or  is  long  delayed, 
the  reason  probably  being  the  greater  weight  thrown  on  the 
posterior  half  of  the  foot.  On  account  of  this  increased  weight 
on  the  posterior  portions  of  the  foot,  the  bars  and  frog  are 
unable  to  withstand  the  tendency  of  the  heels  to  contract  or 
to  be  thrust  inwards,  and  if  the  oblique  hoof  lias  also  weak 
heels  it  is  very  soon  converted  into  a  contracted  hoof,  the  bars 
growing  inwards  and  corns  making  their  appearance.  The 
horse,  especially  if  he  have  good  action,  soon  becomes  useless 
for  work  on  hard  roads.  This  form  of  hoof,  when  accompanied 
by  out-turned  toes  and  Hat  soles,  is  very  troublesome.  The 
unequal  distribution  of  weight  is  the  chief  evil,  a  fact  which 
explains  why,  in  horses  with  out-turned  toes,  corns  are  more 
frequent  in  the  inner,  and  in  those  with  in-turned  toes  in  the 
outer  heel. 

In  horses  with  out-turned  toes,  unequal  distribution  of 
weight  is  also  responsible  to  a  very  large  extent  for  the  pro- 
duction of  sand  cracks  and  separations  of  the  inner  wall,  and 
in  upright  hoofs  of  sand  cracks  at  the  toe. 

5.  Characteristics  of  the  Sound  Hoof. 

The  description  of  the  hoof  by  no  means  terminates  with 
consideration  of  its  form.  On  the  contrarv,  its  characteristics 
vary  to  such  a  degree  that  one  might  almost  venture  to  say 
of  a  hundred  horses  no  two  could  ber  found  with  hoofs  which 
would  exactly  correspond.  They  vary  almost  as  men's  faces, 
a  fact  which  explains  the  differences  in  size,  form,  and  fitting 
necessary  in  shoes.  One  of  the  first  things  the  farrier  has  to 
consider  is  whether  the  hoof  is  healthy.  It  may  be  said,  in 
passing,  that  healthy  hoofs  are  not  so  common  as  is  believed. 
The  wall  of  a  health v  hoof,  when  viewed  from  in  front  and 
from  the  side,  should  run  in  a  straight  line  from  the  coronary 
to  the  bearing  margin,  so  that  a  straight-edge  laid  on  it  in  the 


192  THE   FOOT   IN    ITS   RELATION   TO    THE    ENTIRE   LIMB. 

direction  of  the  horn  tubes  should  everywhere  be  in  contact. 
It  should  neither  show  longitudinal  nor  transverse  splits. 

The  significance  of  rings  depends  on  their  position  and  course. 
Eings  running  parallel  to  the  coronet  are,  as  a  rule,  of  little 
importance :  they  only  indicate  irregular  nutrition,  but  those 
which  deviate  from  this  course  to  any  great  extent,  or  which 
are  more  prominent  at  one  part  of  the  wall  than  at  another, 
point  to  disease.  Viewed  from  the  ground  surface  and  from 
behind,  the  bulbs  should  appear  rounded  off,  strongly  developed, 
and  not  displaced.  The  sole  should  be  concave  and  show  no 
cracks  in  the  white  line.  The  frog  should  be  large,  its  cleft 
narrow,  dry,  and  clean,  and  its  forward  prolongations  equal  in 
size.  The  lateral  furrows,  although  fairly  fine,  should  not  be 
too  narrow ;  the  bars  should  run  in  a  straight  line  forwards 
and  inwards  towards  the  point  of  the  frog.  Any  deviation 
towards  the  heels  suggests  commencing  contraction.  The  sole 
should  show  no  red  colouring  in  or  about  the  corners  of  the 
heels.  The  lateral  cartilages  should  be  elastic  and  equally 
developed. 

Finally,  in  forming  a  judgment  as  to  its  shape  and  sound- 
ness, the  hoof  should  never  be  regarded  alone,  but  in  relation 
to  the  limb. 

6.  Wear  of  the  Hoof  and  of  the  Shoe. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  work  it  was  stated  that  the  hoof 
grows  downwards  and  forwards  at  the  average  rate  of  ^  to 
-j^  inch  per  month, 

Horn  is  lost  either  as  a  result  of  friction  at  the  bearinof 
surface  or  of  shelling  out  of  the  sole.  Two  kinds  of  movement 
combine  to  produce  this  friction  ;  one  the  forward  movement, 
at  the  moment  when  the  hoof  is  brought  to  the  earth,  the  other 
the  rotary  movement,  when  it  is  everywhere  in  contact  with 
the  ground.  The  rate  of  loss  varies  with  the  weight  of  the 
animal,  the  quality  of  horn,  and  the  roughness  and  hardness  of 
the  ground.  On  modern  hard  roads  wear  exceeds  growth,  and 
finally  renders  necessary  some  artificial  protection.  In  fore- 
feet, the  foot  is  brought  to  the  ground  more  obliquely,  and  the 
toe  usually  wears  more  rapidly  than  in  hind-feet.  It  is  of 
importance  to  remember  that,  although  the  point  which   first 


WEAR   OF   THE   HOOF. 


193 


reaches  the  ground  may  vary  in  position,  the  toe  is  always  the 
last  to  leave  it. 

If  the  farrier  in  preparing  the  hoof  leaves  one  point  or  one 
side  of  the  wall  too  high,  the  portion  thus  left  touches  the 
ground  first  until  the  inequality  is  removed  by  increased  wear. 
Were  the  horse  under  perfectly  natural  conditions  this  would 
be  of  little  importance,  but  as  the  shoe  prevents  the  natural 
remedy,  and  as  the  error  is  often  repeated  at  each  shoeing,  any 
injury  thus  produced  is  perpetuated.  The  part  left  too  high 
grows  even  more  rapidly  than  the  rest,  causing  the  wall  to 
lose  its  straight  direction  and  become  curved.  In  the  specimen 
shown  (fig.  188)  the  outer  wall  has  for  a  considerable  time  been 
left  too  hio;h.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  rinses  lie  closest  together  ; 
on  the  low  side  of  the  hoof.  If  the 
toe  is  left  unduly  long  it  bends 
outwards  ;  if  the  heels  are  neglected 
they  are  apt  to  bend  forwards  and 
inwards. 

The  hoof,  moreover,  wears  even 
when  shod,  though  only  at  points 
where  friction  can  occur  between  it 
and  the  shoe,  that  is,  at  the  heels. 
This  wear  is  favoured  by  weak- 
ness of  the  wall,  bad  quality  of 
horn,  heaviness  of  the  body,  wet 
weather,  faulty  shape  of  the  hoof 
and  bearing  surfaces  of  the  shoe,  and  by  much  work  on  hard 
ground.  The  process  itself  is  not  directly  visible,  but  may  be 
detected  by  making  marks  on  the  wall  and  noting  their  dis- 
tance above  the  shoe.  At  the  next  shoeing  these  marks  will 
be  found  to  have  approached  the  shoe  or,  in  some  cases,  even 
to  have  disappeared.  Immobility  of  the  heels,  produced,  for 
example,  by  ossification  of  the  lateral  cartilages,  diminishes  or 
entirely  prevents  this  wear.  The  amount  worn  away  between 
one  shoeing  and  another  is  certainly  not  much,  but  sufficient  to 
require  attention  under  special  circumstances.  The  few  experi- 
ments that  have  been  made  fix  the  amount  thus  worn  away  as 
from  0  to  -J-  inch  per  month.  The  inner  heel  usually  wears 
more  quickly  than  the  outer.     The  form  of  the  friction  surface 

N 


Fig.  ISS.— Overgrown  and  laterally 
distorted  hoof. 


194         THE   FOOT   IN   ITS   RELATION   TO   THE   ENTIRE   LIMB. 

resembles  an  elongated  wedge,  the  base  lying  towards  the  back, 
the  point  extending  forward  as  far  as  the  heels  are  capable  of 
movement. 

The  result  of  this  friction  is  to  reduce  the  heicrht  of  the 
heels ;  in  unilateral  friction,  to  disturb  the  balance  of  the  foot, 
to  loosen  the  heel  nails,  and  sometimes  to  produce  pressure  on 
the  inner  and  posterior  portions  of  the  sole.  As  an  indirect 
result  we  see  increased  wear  of  the  shoe  at  the  toe  or  outer 
quarter. 

Wear  of  the  Shoe. — To  the  practical  farrier  the  wear  of 
the  shoe  affords  valuable  information.  From  a  theoretical 
standpoint  it  should  be  as  regular  as  possible ;  when  this  is  the 
case  we  know  that  the  horse  has  usually  a  free  gait,  that  he  is 
not  suffering  pain,  and  that  he  treads  level,  while  his  shoes 
wear  longer  and — a  great  advantage — admit  of  being  made 
lighter.  Such  regular  wear  indicates  skill  in  shoeing,  though, 
of  course,  it  is  impossible  of  attainment  where  the  limbs  or 
joints  are  already  deformed. 

Unequal  wear  is  very  common  and  may  be  variously  caused. 
Thus,  the  nearer  any  part  of  the  shoe,  such  as  the  toe,  the 
inner  or  outer  quarter,  or  one  or  other  heel,  lies  to  the  centre 
of  the  hoof,  all  other  parts  maintaining  their  proper  position, 
the  more  rapidly  it  wears ;  on  the  other  hand,  by  so  fashioning 
the  shoe  as  to  remove  any  part  further  from  the  centre,  wear 
is  diminished  and  in  proportion  to  the  distance.  The  same 
occurs  when  the  shoe  is  badly  made  or  nailed  on,  when  it  is 
too  wide  at  one  spot  or  too  narrow  at  another,  or  when  the  toe 
is  too  lono-  or  too  short.  Even  the  form  of  the  outer  border  of 
the  shoe  has  some  influence,  the  part  lying  nearest  the  centre 
of  the  hoof  bearing  a  larger  proportion  of  weight  than  portions 
further  removed. 

The  shoe  wears  unequally  when  the  horse  treads  unequally. 
An  uneven  tread  may  be  caused :  1.  By  faulty  trimming,  one 
spot  being  left  too  high,  or  (which  is  the  same  thing)  the 
opposite  being  unduly  lowered.  2.  By  an  unsuitable  shoe  ;  for 
instance,  one  with  toe-grip  where  no  grip  is  needed,  a  shoe 
with  a  narrow  toe  where  the  hoof  is  upright  or  where  thrush 
exists,  a  shoe  too  short  for  an  oblique  foot,  or  a  shoe  too 
narrow  and  too  finely  holed  in  the  outer  branch  for  a  foot  with 
in-turned  toe.      3.  By  well-marked  faults  in  the  conformation  of 


WEAR   OF  THE   SHOE.  195 

the  horse's  limbs  ;  in  this  case  the  entire  formation  must  be 
taken  into  consideration.  4.  By  shortening  the  stride ;  this 
always  produces  severe  wear  of  the  toe.  The  stride  is 
shortened  and  the  horse  treads  on  his  toe  when  his  progress  is 
checked  by  the  curb  or  by  too  heavy  a  load. 

Wear  of  the  shoe  may  be  caused  principally  as  the  foot 
either  meets  the  ground  or  leaves  it.  In  the  latter  case  it  is 
always  at  the  toe,  in  the  former  it  may  be  at  the  toe,  at  one 
or  other  quarter,  or  at  the  heels,  or  it  may  be  distributed  over 
the  entire  surface  of  the  shoe.  Both  kinds  of  wear  fall  on  the 
toe  when  this  part  has  been  left  too  long,  when  the  horse  is 
in  heavy  draught  or  in  fast  saddle  work,  when  it  is  suffering 
from  thrush,  contraction  of  the  flexor  tendons,  spavin,  or  from 
any  of  those  conditions  in  which  the  action  of  the  fetlock  is 
limited. 

The  wear  produced  by  bringing  the  foot  to  the  ground  is 
greatest  on  the  outer  quarter  when  this  is  higher  than  the 
inner,  or  when  the  corresponding  part  of  the  shoe  is  too 
narrow,  as  well  as  when  the  toe  is  turned  out.  As,  in  the 
last  case,  the  wear  produced  when  the  toe  leaves  the  groimd 
is  most  marked  at  the  inner  side,  an  expert  can  sometimes 
diagnose  the  conformation  of  the  limb  from  the  wear  of  the 
shoe.  In  the  following  pages  the  wear  produced  when  the 
foot  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground  will  be  referred  to  as 
descent,  falling,  or  extension  wear  ;  that  produced  as  the  toe 
leaves  the  ground  as  ascent,  lifting,  or  flexion  wear.  Descent 
or  extension  wear  is  very  seldom  seen  on  the  inner  limb  of 
the  shoe,  a  fact  explained  by  the  way  in  which  the  working 
horse  usually  treads. 

It  is,  however,  seen  at  the  heels  in  horses  which  suffer  from 
laminitis  or  which  go  on  their  heels. 

This  short  resum6  indicates,  that 'from  the  wear  exhibited 
by  the  old  shoe  may  be  more  or  less  accurately  learned  the 
conformation  and  distribution  of  weight  in  the  limb,  the  proper 
way  to  pare  the  hoof,  and  the  position,  form,  and  length  to  be 
given  to  the  shoe,  all  of  which  are  of  immense  importance  in 
practical  farriery.  The  old  shoe  is  the  model  from  which  the 
new  must  be  formed,  not  that  it  should  be  followed  slavishly, 
but  used  as  a  guide  to  possible  improvement.  To  read  its 
lessons  aright  demands  keen  observation  and  careful  reflection. 


CHAPTER   11. 

THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

1.  Management  and  Conthol  of  the  Hokse. 

The  horse,  as  n  rule,  and  especially  when  well  treated,  is 
eminently  tractable,  and  if  we  have  frequently  to  deal  with 
animals  which  resent  the  manipulation  necessary  during  shoe- 
ing, it  is  less  on  account  of  the  horse's  vice  than  of  the  farrier's 
bad  management.  The  farrier  may  fairly  require  that  horses 
brought  to  him  should  be  accustomed  to  ordinary  handling. 
It  is  scarcely  his  business  to  practise  horse-breaking,  though 
he  occasionally  finds  some  restraint  absolutely  necessary. 
Such  means  must  be  used,  however,  with  great  discretion, 
unless  they  are,  on  the  one  hand,  to  degenerate  into  cruelty,  or, 
on  the  other,  to  render  the  subject  worse  than  before.  In 
handling  horses  we  should  endeavour  to  obtain  their  con- 
fidence,  and,  therefore,  quietness,  firmness,  a  certain  amount  of 
strength  and  courage  are  required,  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of 
horses  in  general.  We  should  try  to  discover  whether  the 
horse  is  restless  from  being  unused  to  shoeing,  from  fear  of 
a  repetition  of  previous  ill-treatment,  from  excess  of  spirit, 
from  the  absence  of  a  companion,  or  from  pain  in  the  feet  or 
joints. 

The  method  of  handling  older  horses,  or  such  as  are  accustomed 
to  shoeing,  is  of  less  importance.  As  a  rule,  when  properly 
managed,  they  lift  their  feet  willingly,  and  shoeing  proceeds 
without  difficulty.  It  is  otherwise,  however,  in  young,  raw, 
vicious,  or  timid  horses,  which  require  special  precautions. 
The  following  points  should  be  borne  in  mind : — 
(a)  The  horse  should  never  be  tied  up  with  a  fixed  knot. 
The  best  plan  is  to  pass  the  shank  of  the  halter  through  a 
rino',  and  then  twist  the  free  end  two  or  three  times  around  the 


CONTROL   OF   HOESE   DURING    SHOEING.  197 

fixed  part,  so  that,  if  the  horse  '  hangs  back,'  the  halter  will 
readily  untwist  and  release   him. 

(b)  Horses  wliich  are  known  to  resist  being  quietly  shod 
should  not  be  fastened  up,  but  be  held  by  a  reliable  assistant. 

(c)  No  attempt  should  be  made  to  hold  up  the  foot  con- 
tinuously until  the  horse  has  been  accustomed  to  allow  the  leg 
to  be  handled,  except  in  the  case  of  ticklish  horses,  which,  as 
they  seem  to  resent  firm  treatment  less  than  light  handling, 
ought  to  be  grasped  firmly. 

(d)  The  foot  to  be  shod  must  never  be  suddenly  grasped,  and 
it  is  well  to  accustom,  the  animal  first  to  standing  on  three  legs. 
In  lifting^  the  les:  it  should  be  noted  whether  the  animal  stands 
fairly  on  the  other  three.  The  farrier  should  avoid  any  un- 
necessary noise,  the  w^ork  being  better  performed  quietly, 
rapidly,  and  with  as  little  inconvenience  to  the  animal  as 
possible.  In  young  horses  the  limbs  should  not  be  kept  raised 
too  long ;  an  interval  of  rest  is  desirable.  The  legs  of  stiff,  old 
horses  should  not  be  lifted  too  high,  especially  at  the  beginning 
of  shoeing.  When  the  hocks  are  very  stiff,  the  limb  should 
not  be  drawn  forwards,  but  backwards  and  upwards,  care  being 
taken  that  the  animal  does  not  fall. 

Vicious  horses  are  better  shod  in  a  winker  bridle  with  strong 
snaflle,  by  which  they  can  be  better  controlled.  Any  attempt 
at  vice  should  be  immediately  punished,  either  by  jerking  the 
bridle  or  by  calling  to  the  animal  in  loud  tones.  If  this  is 
insufficient  the  horse  may  be  forced  to  move  backwards  in  soft 
ground,  as  this  form  of  exercise  soon  wearies  and  reduces  it  to 
subjection.  In  lifting  the  hind-feet  a  broad  piece  of  webbing 
may  be  fastened  to  the  tail  and  then  passed  completely  round 
the  fetlock  from  the  outside,  emeri^in<T;  ai^ain  at  the  back.  The 
webbing  is  grasped  close  to  the  fetlock,  the  foot  drawn  under 
the  body  and  held  as  above  desoiibed.  This  arrangement 
forces  the  animal  to  carry  a  portion  of  its  own  weight,  while 
it  effectually  prevents  kicking.  In  first  applying  the  w^ebbing 
it  is  well  to  lift  the  fore-foot  of  the  same  side. 

Twitches  are  undesirable  and  should  not  be  employed,  except 
in  carrying  out  painful  operations  on  the  feet.  The  plan  of 
drawing  the  hind-limb  backwards  and  upwards  by  means  of  a 
rope  is  also  bad,  and  sometimes  results  in  rupture  of  the  flexor 
metatarsi.     The  '  side-line  '  consists  of  a  long  rope  with  a  fixed 


198  THE   PEACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 

loop  which  is  passed  round  the  animal's  neck.  The  free  end  is 
passed  from  without  around  the  fetlock,  carried  forward,  passed 
through  the  fixed  loop  and  drawn  tight,  thus  lifting  the  hind- 
foot.  It  is  useful  in  dealing  with  heavy  animals,  but  must  be 
employed  with  care,  as  violent  struggling  is  apt  to  be  followed 
by  heavy  falls  and  serious  injury.  In  dealing  with  a  trouble- 
some animal,  it  is  often  sufficient  to  place  him  against  the  wall 
in  charge  of  the  groom,  who  is  instructed  to  hold  his  head  high, 
and  occupy  his  attention  by  patting  and  speaking  to  him  or  by 
gently  playing  with  the  bit. 

Some  animals,  which  resist  being  tied  up  or  even  held,  will 
stand  quietly  if  left  completely  at  liberty  with  the  reins  passed 
over  the  neck. 

Others,  which  are  troublesome  in  a  watering  bridle,  at  once 
become  quiet  when  the  eyes  are  covered. 

Certain  horses  can  only  be  shod  when  along  with  a  stable 
companion.  Sensitive  animals  are  often  so  irritated  in  summer 
by  the  attacks  of  flies  that  they  can  only  be  shod  early  in  the 
morninoj  or  late  in  the  evenino'. 

Finally,  some  horses,  which  are  quite  intractable  at  the 
farrier's,  can  be  shod  without  difficulty  in  the  stable. 

Travises  or  stocks  are  usually  unnecessary,  save  for  shoeing 
very  heavy  horses. 

In  Germany  an  assistant  holds  the  foot  while  the  shoe  is 
fitted  to  the  foot,  but  this  is  unnecessary  if,  as  in  England, 
animals  are  accustomed  from  an  early  age  to  the  feet  being 
lifted.  The  farrier  lays  his  tools  close  to  the  animal's  feet. 
In  taking  off,  say,  the  left  fore -shoe,  he  grasps  the  hoof  at  the 
toe  with  the  right  hand,  allows  it  to  descend  slightl}^  passes 
his  left  leg  around  the  limb,  grips  the  horse's  foot  between  his 
knees  and  places  his  feet  a  little  apart  to  give  him  a  firm 
foothold.  In  this  position  the  shoe  is  taken  off,  the  hoof  pre- 
pared and  the  shoe  nailed  on.  Once  the  clenches  are  turned 
down  he  carries  the  foot  forwards,  places  it  on  his  thigh,  nips 
off'  the  points  of  the  nails,  turns  over  the  clenches  and  finishes 
the  work.  The  hind-foot  is  not  grasped  between  the  knees, 
but  laid  on  the  thigh,  the  cannon  bone  resting  more  or  less  on 
the  farrier's  hip.  The  work  is  finished  in  a  similar  way  to 
that  of  the  fore-foot,  the  hoof  being  brought  forward  and 
placed  on  the  farrier's  knee.     When,  however,  the    horse    is 


EXAMINATION    OF   ANIMAL   BEFORE    SHOEING. 


199 


heavy  or  troublesome,  an  assistant  is  of  great  service  and 
sometimes  almost  indispensable,  while  the  work  can  be  better 
done  as  the  foot  need  not  be  raised  so  hicrh. 


2.  Determining  the  Style  of  Shoeincj. 


In  judging  of  the  style  of  shoeing  to  adopt,  the  horse  must 
be  seen  both  at  rest  and  in  motion,  the  objects  being  to  form 
a  clear  idea  of  the  conformation  and  action  of  the  limb,  of  the 
form  and  condition  of  the  hoof,  of  the  way  in  which  the  horse 
brings  the  foot  to,  and  lifts  it  from,  the  ground,  of  the  shape 
and  length  to  be  given  to  the  shoe,  of  the  number  and  position 
of  the  nail  holes,  and  of  the  wear  of  the  old  shoe,  in  order 


Fig.  189. 


Fig.  190. 


that  all  the  peculiarities  thus  discovered  may  be  utilised  to 
remove  or  palliate  existing  defects. 

The  horse  is  led  away  from  the  observer  in  a  straight  line, 
the  hind-limbs  being  first  examined  (fig.  189),  and  on  its 
return  the  fore-limbs  (fig.  190).  This  is  continued  until  the 
examiner  makes  up  his  mind  whether  the  horse  goes  normally 
or  not.  In  tlie  latter  case,  that  is,  if  the  horse  goes  in 
some  irregular  way,  one  of  two  conditions  may  exist,  that  is, 
the  deviation  may  be  inwards  or  outwards.     The  foot  and  hoof 


200  THE    PKACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 

of  either  limb  is  then  examined,  special  attention  being  given 
to  the  direction  of  the  fetlock  and  of  the  quarters  of  the  hoof, 
it  being  borne  in  mind  that  the  fetlock  and  hoof  should  follow 
the  same  general  line,  as  otherwise  the  foot  axis  will  be  bent. 
At  the  same  time  the  manner  in  which  the  hoof  is  carried  and 
the  angle  of  the  fetlock  should  be  noted,  both  when  weight  is 
placed  upon  it  and  when  it  is  removed.  A  few  paces  at  the 
trot  will  show  whether  the  animal  is  lame  or  not.  The  con- 
formation of  the  limbs  and  the  form  of  the  hoof,  toQ;ether  with 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  carried  and  put  down,  having  been 
ascertained,  the  horse  is  examined  at  rest,  and  a  mental  note 
made  of  the  hoof  and  stvle  of  shoeinsj,  as  far  as  can  be  done 


FIG. 191. 


by  viewing  the  parts  from  in  front  and  behind.  The  appear- 
ance of  the  coronet,  the  presence  of  any  curvature,  of  rings  or 
fissures  in  the  wall,  and,  at  the  same  time,  any  other  defects  or 
peculiarities,  such  as  one  hoof  being  narrower  or  more  upright 
than  another,  receive  attention. 

The  examination  of  the  animal  at  rest  and  from  the  side 
comes  next  in  order.  The  farrier  will  note  at  a  glance  the 
weight,  height,  and  length  of  the  body,  the  position  and  direc- 
tion of  the  limbs  and  hoofs,  whether  the  form  of  the  hoof 
corresponds  to  the  direction  of  the  limbs,  whether  the  line  of 
the  fetlock  agrees  with  that  of  the  toe  wall,  and  whether  the 
toe  and  heel  walls  run  parallel ;  at  tlie  same  time  the  general 


EXAMINATION   OF   FOOT   AND   OLD    SHOE   BEFORE   SHOEING.    201 

formation  of  the  hoof  will  be  remarked.  In  the  event  of  the 
wall  exhibiting  rings,  their  relation  to  one  another  and  to  the 
coronet,  whether  they  cross,  etc.,  should  be  observed,  while 
the  lenoth  of  the  shoe  must  not  be  overlooked. 

Finally,  the  feet  are  lifted  and  the  width  of  the  hoof,  the 
condition  of  the  sole,  whether  little  or  no  horn  is  being  shed 
from  it  and  the  frog,  the  depth  of  the  lateral  grooves  of  the 
frog  (which  indicates  the  thickness  of  the  sole),  the  state  of 
the  lateral  cartilages  and  bulbs  of  the  heels,  and  the  presence 
of  cracks  or  cavities  in  the  horn  of  the  wall  will  be  seen.  The 
form,  holing,  position,  wear,  and  age  of  the  old  shoe  nmst  be 
borne  in  mind.  It  will  be  seen  whether  the  shoe  corresponds 
in  form  to  the  hoof,  and  whether  the  number  and  distribution 
of  the  nail  holes  and  nails  appear  good.  The  shoe  may  com- 
pletely cover  the  bearing  surface  of  the  wall  or  may  project  on 
either  side  and  thus  give  rise  to  brushing  or  unequal  wear. 
The  distribution  of  wear  is  of  great  importance.  Unilateral 
wear  is  often  seen  conjoined  with  irregular  tread  and  deformity 
of  the  wall,  especially  when  this  irregular  wear  has  been 
allowed  to  continue  for  several  shoeings.  As  a  rule,  the  side 
of  the  shoe  thus  excessively  worn  is  too  narrow  and  the 
opposite  too  wide,  or  that  part  of  the  wall  lying  above  is  too 
high,  the  opposite  too  low,  or  the  shoe  is  applied  '  across  the 
foot.'  In  all  such  cases  the  bearing  surface  at  the  point  of 
excessive  wear  is  too  small. 

The  object  of  the  examination  should  be  to  give  the  farrier 
a  clear  notion  of  the  conformation  of  the  limb,  of  the  gait,  of 
the  form  of  the  foot  and  of  the  hoof.  His  object  should  then 
be  to  obviate  such  defects  and  supply  such  wants  as  he 
observes. 

3.    liEMOVAL    OF    THE    OlD    ShOES. 

In  horses  with  sound  hoofs  all  the  shoes  can  be  taken  off 
one  after  the  other,  but  in  handling  diseased  hoofs  this  should 
be  avoided.  In  removing  shoes  considerable  care  is  required 
and  violence  should  never  be  used.  If  very  dirty  the  hoofs 
can  be  cleaned  with  a  brush.  The  doorman  feels  for  the  clench 
with  the  point  of  his  finger,  places  the  buffer  against  it,  and 
with  a  smart  blow  of  the  hammer  cuts  it  without  injuring  the 


202  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

* 

wall.  In  order  to  remove  the  nails  singly  the  shoe  must  be 
loosened.  One  can  either  use  pincers  with  a  wide  mouth, 
passing  below  and  grasping  the  entire  shoe,  in  which  case  the 
pincers  are  moved  like  a  lever  in  the  direction  of  the  limb  of 
the  shoe,  or  the  buffer  may  be  driven  from  behind  between 
the  shoe  and  the  hoof.  The  former  plan  is  preferable.  Once 
the  shoe  is  loosened  the  nails  can  be  drawn  separately.  When 
the  shoe  has  recently  been  put  on,  or  when  the  horse  is  trouble- 
some, another  method  is  sometimes  employed.  Taking  the 
foot  on  his  knee,  the  doorman  cuts  the  clenches,  and,  with  the 
pointed  end  of  the  buffei",  drives  down  each  nail  separately, 
removing  it  afterwards  in  the  usual  way.  This  plan  is  also 
advisable  if  the  feet  are  very  brittle  or  broken. 

4.  Prepakation  of  the  Hoof  for  Shoeing. 

The  continuous  growth  of  the  horn  and  absence  of  wear 
render  paring  of  the  hoof  from  time  to  time  necessary.  A 
further  reason  is  the  provision  of  a  solid  bearing  surface  for 
the  shoe.  Trimming  must  be  so  carried  out  that,  firstly,  the 
wall  when  viewed  from  in  front  and  from  the  sides  corresponds 
in  direction  with  the  common  axis  of  the  bones,  and  secondly, 
so  that  at  ordinary  paces  all  parts  of  the  bearing  surface  of  the 
wall  meet  the  ground  at  the  same  moment,  in  other  words, 
that  the  hoof  is  set  down  fiat. 

Varying  with  the  direction  and  form  of  the  hoof,  quality  of 
horn  and  character  of  the  work,  the  foot  requires  lowering  every 
three  or  four  weeks.  If  the  animal  goes  for  six,  eight,  or  ten 
weeks,  not  only  does  the  relation  of  the  hoof  to  the  fetlock 
become  changed,  but  the  gait  loses  in  freedom  and  certainty, 
the  toe  grows  too  long,  an  increased  strain  is  thrown  on  the 
flexor  tendons  which  favours  stumbling,  the  shoes  become  re- 
latively too  short  and  too  narrow,  and  are  overgrown  by  the 
hoof,  while  corns  may  be  caused  by  pressure  on  the  angles  of 
the  heels.  The  hoof  increases  in  width,  favouring  separation 
between  the  wall  and  sole,  and  the  animal  may  strike  itself. 
Horses  whose  hoofs  have  become  too  long  almost  always  fall 
lame  when  much  worked,  especially  on  hard  roads.  In  broad, 
flat  feet,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  oblique  feet,  these  bad 
results  occur  more  rapidly  than  in  those  which  are  narrow  and 


THE   doorman's   TOOLS.  203 

upright,  for  which  reason  flat  feet  require  more  frequent  atten- 
tion than  upright,  whether  the  shoes  are  worn  out  or  not. 
Many  owners  only  send  their  horses  to  the  farrier  when  shoes 
become  loose,  but,  as  a  rule,  new  shoes  are  required  every  three 
to  five  weeks. 

As  we  have  now  to  consider  the  work  which  more  especially 
falls  within  the  domain  of  the  doorman  we  may  perhaps  be 
permitted  to  digress  for  a  moment  to  give  a  short  description 
of  the  doorman's  tools.  A  slight  deviation  has  been  made  from 
the  original  plan  of  the  book  ;  hence  the  tools  used  by  the 
doorman  in  shoe-making  as  well  as  in  preparing  the  foot  and 
nailing  on  the  shoe  are  given  here. 

The  shoeing  hammer  is  used  in  conjunction  with  the  buffer 
to  cut  the  clenches,  before  removing  the  old  shoe,  to  drive  and 
turn  down  the  nails,  and,  in  many  cases,  to  twist  off  the  points. 
The  buffer  is  usually  made  from  a  piece  of  worn-out  rasp. 
Some  care  is  required  in  tempering  it  so  that  it  may  neither  be 
so  brittle  as  to  break  when  struck,  nor  so  soft  as  to  soon  lose 
its  edge.  The  pincers  are  also  made  from  worn-out  rasps. 
Thev  are  used  in  removing^  the  shoe,  drawing:  down  the  clenches, 
and  cutting  off  the  points  of  the  nails. 

Drawing-knives  may  be  made  from  old  files.  Two  or  three 
sizes  are  needed,  the  smaller  being  used  for  completing  the  cut- 
ting out  of  feet,  etc. 

A  nail  cap  is  best  formed  of  a  heavy  block  of  wood  sur- 
rounded by  a  rim  of  leather.  The  base  being  heavy  there  is 
less  chance  of  the  cap  being  upset.  The  most  widely  used 
rasps  are  '  Turner's,'  15  inches  in  length,  half  file  cut  and 
reversible.  These  are  cut  by  hand,  but  some  very  useful 
machine-cut  rasps  of  American  make  are  now  in  the  market. 
Toeing-knives  are  often  made  from  old  rasps,  though  in  London 
pieces  of  disused  sword  blade  are  more  commonly  used,  as  they 
need  no  preparation.  The  toeing-knife  is  very  useful  when 
judiciously  employed,  but  in  many  shops  its  use  is  altogether 
prohibited ;  it  being  found  that  the  ease  with  which  large 
masses  of  horn  can  be  removed  often  tempts  hasty  or  careless 
workmen  to  use  it  instead  of  the  drawing-knife,  and  so  to  inflict 
serious  injury  on  the  foot. 

Of  the  tools  used  by  doormen  in  shoe-making  the  sledge 
hammer  is  of  the  pattern  shown,  with   one  flat  and  one  convex 


204 


THE    PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


face.  It  weighs  about  9  lbs.  The  fire-tongs  are  for  holding 
the  old  shoes  which  are  being  worked  up  as  '  heats/  in  the 
fire.  When  the  heat  is  ready  for  welding  it  is  grasped  with 
the  fireman's  tongs  and  transferred  to  the  anvil.  Fire-tongs 
are  often  used  for  beating  down  the  wet  coals  while  forming  a 
'  back.' 

The  '  clamp '  is  intended  to  hold  a  concave  or  fullered  hunt- 
ing shoe  when  being  filed  out.  The  shoe  is  grasped  by  the  jaws 
of  the  clamp  and  the  latter  inserted  in  the  vice.     The  jaws  are 

curved  so  that  the  shoe  is  brought  into 
a  more  convenient  position  for  the  work- 
man than  if  it  were  inserted  directly  in 
the  vice. 

In  preparing  the  hoof  a  good  rasp 
and  a  farrier's  drawing-knife  are  quite 
sufficient.  Here  and  there  in  France 
the  Arabian  form  of  knife  shown  in 
fig.   192  is  still  employed. 

After  glancing  at  the  limbs,  etc.,  and 
judging  of  the  relative  strength  of  the 
hoof  to  the  weight  of  the  animal's  body, 
the  hoof  is  trimmed  and  any  stubs  care- 
fully removed.  The  information  already 
gleaned  must  be  kept  in  mind  when 
judging  whence  and  how  much  horn  is 
to  be  taken  away  from  the  sole  and 
wall. 

It  is  not  altogether  superfluous  to  ask 
whether  horn  must  be  taken  awav,  be- 
cause  cases  occur  where  the  hoof  is 
so  weak  that,  if  it  were  possible,  we 
should  be  justified  in  adding  rather  than  removing.  A  faulty 
shoe  can  immediately  be  replaced  by  a  better,  but  once  horn 
is  removed  it  can  only  be  replaced  by  a  very  slow  process  of 
growth. 

In  any  case  loose  portions  of  horn  should  be  removed,  after 
which  the  white  line  is  examined,  and  its  condition  and  relation 
to  the  circumference  of  the  wall,  which  indicate  the  thickness 
of  the  wall  itself,  noted. 

It  is  clear,  of  course,  that  only  the  wall  should  be  lowered 


FiCx.  192. 


PKEPARATION    OF   HOOF   FOR    SHOEING. 


205 


the  sole  should  be  freed  of  loose  portions  of  horn  but 
nothing  more.  This  done,  the  bearing  surface  of  the  wall  is 
lowered  until  a  narrow  strip,  the  width  of  a  straw,  on  the 
outer  border  of  the  sole,  and  in  contact  all  round  with  the 
white   line,    forms    part    of    the  new    bearing    surface.      This 


Fig.  193.— Section  through  normal  hoof, 
showing  strength  of  "connection  be- 
tween Avail  and  sole. 


Fig.  194. — Section  through  hoof 
with  thin  sole,  showing  con- 
nection between  wall  and  sole. 


avoids  weakening  the  connection    between  the  wall  and  sole 
(figs.  193,  194,  195,  and  196). 

When  the  sole  shows  no  lar^e  cracks,  and  its  outer  circum- 
ference  forms  a  continuous  surface  with  that  of  the  wall,  noth- 
ing should,  as  a  rule,  be  removed.  At  most  the  wall  is  to  be 
levelled  with  the  rasp,  and  the  bars,  if  curling  inwards,  slightly 
reduced.      All  portions   of  the  wall  lower  than  the  margin  of 


Fig.  195.— Section  through  normal  foot,  a,  os  pedis;  b,  sensitive  sole;  e,  horn  sole;  d,  bear- 
ing margin  of  wall;  e,  boundary  between  growing  horn  and  that  ready  to  be  cast,  indi- 
cating how  far  the  sole  should  be  pared. 

the  sole  can  be  removed  ;  if  no  part  projects  below  this  point 
nothing  should  be  removed.  The  bearing  surface  then  con- 
sists of  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  including  the  white  line,  and 
a  narrow  strip  of  the  outer  margin  of  the  sole.  This  should  be 
completely  levelled  with  the  rasp  and  only  rounded  off  slightly 
at  the  toe. 

In  case  of  doubt  as  to  how  much  to  remove,  the  horn  of  the 


206 


THE   PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


sole  can  be  tried  with  the  knife  at  a  spot  close  to  the  apex  of 
the  frog.      Dull  colour  and  small  cracks  of  the  horn,  together 

with  deep  lateral  grooves  at  the 
sides  of  the  frog,  indicate  a  thick 
sole.  Loosening  and  shedding 
of  the  horn  of  the  sole  are  due 
to  two  causes,  the  first  being 
growth  of  the  sole.  As  the  sole 
becomes  thicker  it  is  exposed  to 
strain,  because  it  is  unable  to 
follow  the  growing,  and  hence 
expanding,  circumference  of  the 
wall.  Secondly,  shedding  of  horn 
is  favoured  by  alternating  mois- 
ture and  dryness,  by  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  sole,  and  by  its 
movement   during;    the    animal's 

Fig.  196.-Front  foot,    a,  prepared  for  the    paCCS.        TheSC    factorS    acting   to- 
shoe ;  6,  before  preparation.  in-  ci 

gether  favour  shelhng  or  the 
sole,  and  in  flat  hoofs  operate  so  effectively  that  a  strong  sole  is 
rare.  In  upright  feet,  however,  the  sole  is  usually  strong  and 
its  margins,  at  least,  perfectly  capable  of  supporting  weight. 

The  bars  should  be  spared  and  their  connection  with  the 
wall  under  no  circumstances  weakened,  much  less  cut  through. 


Fig.  197.— a,  riglit  fore-foot  of  normal  limb ;  b,  of  turned-in  limb,  both  showing  incon-ect 
paring.    The  correct  form  is  indicated  by  dotted  lines. 

It  is  best  to  leave  them  level  with  the  wall  or  a  very  little 
lower,  though  the  extreme  posterior  parts  of  the  sole  should  be 
lowered  at  least  ^^  inch.  The  point  where  the  wall  is  incurved 
to  form  the  bars  requires  particular  attention.  In  sound  un- 
shod hoofs  the  bars  run  in  an  almost  straight  direction,  from 


PREPARATION   OF   HOOF    FOR   SHOEING. 


207 


a  spot  somewhat  behind  the  point  of  the  frog,  backwards  and 
outwards.  In  shod  hoofs,  however,  they  tend  to  deviate  from 
this  course,  to  converge  again  at  the  bulbs,  and  thus  to 
encroach  on  the  space  normally  occupied  by  the  frog.  Removal 
of  the  angle  of  the  bars  {i.e.,  the  point  at  which  they  join  the 
wall)  should  never  be  allowed. 

The  frog  is  left  sufficiently  strong  to  project  below  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  heel,  a  distance  equal  to  the  thickness  of 
an  ordinary  shoe.  If  weakened,  it  atrophies,  and  the  hoof 
contracts.  It  should,  therefore,  only  be  pared  when  diseased ; 
in  other  cases  loose  parts  alone  are  to  be  removed.  It  need 
scarcely  be  pointed  out  that,  if 
strong,  the  frog  will  soon  wear  to  "^^^v 
proper  proportions. 

The  sharp  edge  of  the  bearing 
margin  of  the  wall  should  be  rounded 
as  shown  in  fig.  198,  but  in  normal 
hoofs  the  general  surface  must  only 
be  rasped  if  curved  or  deformed,  as 
sometimes  happens  on  the  inner 
aspect.  Eounding  the  edge  prevents 
splitting  and  facilitates  fitting  the 
shoe. 

The  foregoing  remarks  on  trim- 
ming the  wall  apply,  of  course,  only  to  the  hoofs  of  normal 
limbs ;  other  cases  require  special  attention.  AVhen  the  toes 
are  turned  out,  the  outer  wall,  if  viewed  from  the  front,  is 
longer  than  the  inner  and  to  an  extent  corresponding  with 
the  extent  of  the  defect.  When  the  toes,  on  the  contrary,  are 
turned  in,  the  inner  wall  is  longer  than  the  outer.  Before  pro- 
ceeding to  trim  the  hoof,  therefore,  the  position  of  the  feet  and 
the  direction  of  the  foot  axis  should  be  noted. 

Goyau  gives  the  following  directions  (which  have  been 
summarised)  for  the  preparation  of  the  hoof.  Imitate  the 
eftects  of  natural  wear.  Natural  wear  produces  a  flat  foot  of  a 
form  best  suited  to  the  conformation  of  the  limb  it  terminates. 
It  shortens  and  rounds  the  toe,  lowering  it  to  a  gi'eater  extent 
than  the  heels ;  removes  horn  only  from  the  anterior  part  of 
the  sole,  leaving  the  connection  between  walls  and  sole  of  full 
strength ;  rounds  off  the  outer  edge  of  the  wall  more  than  the 


Fig.  19S.— Vertical  section  through 
wall  at  toe.  a-c,  absolute;  a-b, 
apparent  thickness.  The  curve, 
c-b,  indicates  the  necessary  rounil- 
ins  of  the  toe. 


208 


THE    PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


inner,  and  spares  the  sole,  frog,  and  bars,  which  shed  their 
suj)ertiuous  growth  naturally.  Natural  wear  gives  to  the  foot 
the  form  best  suited  to  the  animal's  action,  and  produces  a 
perfectly  Hat  bearing  surface  from  the  quarters  to  the  heels. 

Finally,  Goyau  declares  that  the  equilibrium  (aplomh)  of  the 
limb  should  result  as  far  as  possible  from  the  yreparation  of 
the  foot  and  not  from  varying  the  thickness  of  different  regions 
of  the  shoe. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  in  paring  the  hoof  to  bring  the 
wall  into  line  with  the  axis  of  the  foot  (fig.  197). 

In  dealing  with  the  foot  as  seen  from  the  side,  the  question 
resolves  itself  into  one  of  the  relative  heights  of  the  toe  and 
heels. 

The  axis  of  the  foot  must  be  the  guide.  In  normal  feet  it 
is  parallel  with  the  wall  of  the  toe  (figs.  165-167).  If  the 
hoof  becomes  too  long,  the  intersection  of  the  hoof  and  foot 


Fig.  199.  —  Hoof  too  oblique, 
horn  to  be  removed  shown 
by  dotted  line. 


Fig.  200.— The  same  hoof  pro- 
perly prepared. 


axes  forms  an  obtuse  angle  (fig.  199).  This  renders  it  more 
difficult  for  the  load  to  be  moved,  and  leads  to  disease  of  the 
coronet  joint  through  strain  on  the  ligaments  connecting  the 
suffraginis  and  coronet  bones.  Shortening  the  toe  compensates 
for  this,  and  restores  the  foot  to  its  proper  position  (fig.  200). 
There  is  less  injury  to  the  joints  when  the  heels  are  too  high 
(fig.  201,  6),  because  the  back  of  the  shoe  is  then  worn  away. 
By  shortening  the  toe  or  heel  the  fetlock  and  foot  axes  are 
thus  readily  brought  into  line,  as  shown  by  fig.  201. 

It  has  been  found  that  excessive  lowering  of  the  heels  tends 
to  strain  of  the  perforans  tendon,  while  excessive  height  relieves 


A  Wall 

B  Horny  Lamin/C 

C  Groove 

D  White  Line 

E  Inner  Surface  of  Sole 

F  Frog 

G  Periople 

H  Bulb 


SECTION  OF  HORSE'S  HOOF. 


FACTORS   DETERMINING    POSITION    OF  GREATEST   WEAR. 


209 


the  perforans  at  the  expense  of  the  perforatus.  Excessive 
length  of  the  toe  is  therefore  more  injurious  than  the  opposite 
condition  because  of  the  importance  of  the  perforans. 

The  bearing  of  the  hoof  is  normal  when  all  parts  of  the  bear- 
ing surface  of  the  wall  or  of  the  shoe  meet  the  ground  at  the 
same  time,  and  when  the  toe  wall  and  heel,  viewed  from  the 
side,  correspond  in  direction  with  the  common  axis  of  the 
bones  of  the  foot. 

It  must  always  be  a  matter  for  the  judgment  of  the  farrier, 
when  paring  the  foot,  to  what  extent  he  shall  adopt  the  in- 
dications given  by  the  wearing  of  the  heels  or  of  the  toe,  but 


Fig.  201.— Two  feet  seen  from  the  side  ;  iu  a  the  toe  is  too  long,  in  h  the  heels. 
The  dotted  lines  indicate  the  correct  relations  between  hoof  and  pastern. 

this  much  seems  quite  certain,  that  wearing  of  the  heels 
necessitates  shortening  of  the  toes,  and  marked  wearing  of  any 
part  of  the  shoe  generally  shows  that  the  portion  of  the  wall 
above  that  spot  needs  lowering,  or  that  the  shoe  is  too  narrow 
at  that  point ;  but  in  all  doubtful  cases  a  final  judgment  should 
be  deferred  until  the  horse  has  been  seen  in  motion. 

We  say  generally,  because  it  must  be  remembered  that  wear 
depends  not  only  on  conformation  but  on  pace  and  the  nature 
of  the  work  performed.  Thus  the  spavined  horse  wears  most 
at  the  toe.  The  stepping  horse  and  the  fast  trotter  wear  at 
the  heels.  The  saddle  horse  wears  all  parts  evenly.  The 
draught  horse  wears  the  toe  excessively.  To  lower  the  toe  of 
the  spavined  horse  and  of  the  horse  with  low  heels  is  good 
practice,  but  to  do  the  same  with  the  heavy  draught  horse,  or  to 
lower  the  heels  of  the  stepping  horse,  would  be  a  grave  error. 

Finally,  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  changing  from  flat 
shoes  to  shoes  with  heels,  or  vice  versa,  the  hoof  must  be  properly 
prepared  so  as  to  preserve  the  relations  between  the  axes  of 

0 


210  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

the  foot  and  of  the  hoof.  As  each  hoof  is  prepared  for  the 
new  shoe  the  latter  should  be  applied  and  the  animal  allowed 
to  stand  on  it,  the  foot  being  then  examined  and  compared 
with  its  fellow.  Only  when  the  position,  etc.,  of  the  limb 
appear  normal  should  the  shoe  be  nailed  on.  The  two  fore 
and  two  hind  hoofs  should,  when  in  like  positions,  not  only  be 
of  similar  size,  but  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  size  and 
weight  of  the  body. 

5.  Working  without  Shoes. 

Working  without  shoes  is  only  possible  when  the  hoof  i& 
strong  and  the  ground  soft.  Only  loose  fragments  of  horn 
should  be  removed  from  the  frog,  thus  allowing  the  weight  of 
the  body  to  be  equally  distributed  over  the  entire  bearing 
surface  of  the  hoof.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  wall  is  then 
well-rounded  off  with  a  rasp  to  prevent  pieces  breaking  out — 
flat,  oblique  hoofs  being  more  rounded  off  than  those  which 
are  upright.  With  this  preparation  the  hoofs  are  much  im- 
proved by  the  animal  being  worked  barefoot.  From  time  to 
time  they  should  be  examined  and  any  irregularities  of  form 
corrected.  It  may  be  necessary  to  again  round  off  the  wall, 
especially  when  the  feet  are  very  flat,  while  the  heels  may 
require  lowering,  as  they  do  not  always  wear  as  rapidly  as  the 
toe. 

6.  General  Principles  to  be  Observed  in  the 
Choice  of  the  Shoe. 

Considerable  care  is  necessary  in  selecting  shoes  from  stock. 
In  the  first  place  the  shoe  must  be  suited  to  the  size  and 
weight  of  the  horse,  to  the  kind  of  work,  to  the  surface  on 
which  the  animal  is  working,  and  to  the  form  of  the  hoof. 
Young  horses,  as  a  rule,  wear  their  shoes  less,  and  are  more 
liable  to  cut  or  brush  if  shod  heavily  than  stiff,  old  animals, 
and  should,  therefore,  be  shod  correspondingly  lighter,  as 
should  horses  in  easy  draught  and  those  whose  work  lies  on 
soft  ground.  Even  for  paved  roads  heavy  shoes  are  to  be 
avoided,  especially  when  the  pace  is  faster  than  a  walk. 
Sufficient  strength  should,  however,  be  given  to  ensure  the 
shoe  wearing  from  three  to  four  weeks,  and  it  may  be  necessary 


GUIDING   PPJNCIPLES   IN  CHOICE   OF   SHOE. 


211 


to  secure  greater  durability  by  inserting  a  piece  of  steel  at  the 
point  of  greatest  wear. 

In  order  to  allow  of  frog  pressure  the  shoe  must  be  formed 
as  thin  as  is  consistent  with  durability  and  with  the  preserva- 
tion of  its  form.  Excessive  weight  injures  the  action  and 
exhausts  the  animal.  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  the 
training  of  horses,  where  heavy  shoes  are  often  used  to  teach 
the  animal  to  lift  his  feet  and  thus  increase  his  '  action.' 
When  we  remember  that  during  fast  work  the  foot  is  lifted 
about  sixty  times  per  minute,  the  amount  of  energy  wasted 
in  ten  to  twelve  hours  will  be  seen  to  be  very  great. 

Flat  or  '  dropped '  soles  require  more  *  cover  *  than  strong 
feet  with  well-arched  soles,  but  a  certain  amount  must  always 
be  given.  In  Paris  the  cover  is  usually  reduced  to  a  minimum 
— and  with  the  worst  possible  results  to  the  feet.  As  wear 
is  rapid  in  large  towns  some  compromise  must  be  made 
between  thickness  and  cover,  because  were  both  given  the  shoe 


Fig.  202. 


Fig.  203. 


Fig.  204. 


would  be  too  heavy.     Very  broad  shoes  increase  the  risk  of 
slipping. 

Special  attention  must  be  given  to  the  length  of  the  shoe. 
All  shoes  become  too  short  after  a  time,  and  should,  therefore 
be  selected  of  sufficient  length  to  convpletely  cover  the  bearino- 
surface  of  the  wall  and  in  most  cases  to  project  a  little.* 
The  exact  excess  of  length  depends  both  on  the  form  of  the 
hoof  when  viewed  laterally  and  the  style  of  shoe,  but  as  a 
general  rule  oblique  hoofs  require  longer  shoes  than  upright. 
When  the  foot  is  upright  and  the  shoe  flat,  ^  inch  is  quite 

*  An  exception  may  perhaps  be  made  in  favour  of  hunting  shoes,  but  even 
here  the  heel  is  often  prolonged,  being  narrowed  and  turned  upwards,  so  that 
the  point  is  embedded  in  the  wall  of  the  heel. 


212 


THE  PKACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 


sufficient,  but  can  be  increased  to  ^  or  J  inch,  in  some  cases, 
indeed,  to  1^  inches,  according  to  the  size  and  weight  of 
the  horse.  Long  shoes  throw  greater  weight  on  the  anterior 
half  of  the  hoof ;  short  ones  have  an  opposite  effect. 

In  heavy  draught  horses  the  heels  may  be  so  long  as  to 
meet  a  vertical  line  dropped  from  the  bulbs  of  the  heel,  but 
for  light  horses,  working  at  a  trot  or  gallop,  this  would  be 
quite  inadmissible,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  shoes  being 
trodden  on  and  torn  off. 

This  question  is  worthy  of  careful  consideration.  When  the 
foot  is  on  the  fjround  the  leng^th  of  the  heels  can  have  no 
special  influence  on  the  direction  of  the  pastern,  etc.  The  foot 
rests  on  the  shoe  as  it  would  on  the  ground.  Bat  at  the 
moment  preceding  that  of  bringing  the  foot  to  the  ground  the 
length   of    the  heels  is  of  great  importance.      The  foot  just 


Fig.  205. 


before  it  touches  the  earth  is  not  parallel  to  the  general  surface, 
but  forms  a  slight  angle  with  it.  That  is  to  say,  that  at  the 
moment  of  putting  down  the  foot  the  animal  raises  the  toe 
and  lowers  the  heels.  Then  he  slightly  draws  back  the  foot, 
and  brings  it  parallel  and  in  contact  with  the  ground.  This 
movement  can  be  noted  by  viewing  the  horse  either  from  in 
front  or  from  the  side.  In  a  horse  trotting  towards  the 
observer  the  toe  is  often  lifted,  just  before  being  set  down, 
sufficiently  high  to  allow  of  the  ground  surface  of  the  shoe 
being  seen.     This  only  applies  to  fore-feet. 

The  foot  being  lifted  at  A  (fig.  205)  passes  into  the  position 


ACTION   OF  LONG   HEELS  AND  CALKINS.  213 

shown  at  B  by  describing  a  modification  of  the  arc  D  E.  From 
the  position  B  it  passes  backwards  to  assume  the  position  C, 
describing  the  curve  E'  G'.  It  is,  therefore,  clear  that  if  the 
heels  of  the  shoe  are  longer  than  the  hoof  the  prolongation  will 
describe  a  curve  which  will  cut  the  ground  surface.  In  other 
words,  at  the  moment  the  hoof  is  brought  to  the  ground  the 
heels  of  the  shoe  will  make  contact  much  earUer  than  the  toe, 
and  the  foot  will  come  to  rest  at  E'  instead  of  at  G.  It  will 
at  once  be  seen  how  injurious  this  is,  especially  to  the  heels. 

Calkins  are  just  as  harmful  as  long  heels  for  front  feet. 
To  those  who  doubt  this,  we  may  commend  the  practical  test 
of  applying  a  pair  of  front  shoes  with  heels,  say,  1  or  1^  inches 
longer  than  the  feet,  or  with  calkins  1^  or  2  inches  high.  On 
making  the  horse  trot,  a  peculiar  shoulder  action  will  be 
observable  and  the  horse  w^ill  go  as  though  affected  with 
Liminitis.  The  foot  seems  to  be  brought  to  the  ground  as 
shown  in  B,  fig.  205. 

In  hind-feet  lengthening  the  heels  is  not  accompanied  by 
these  disadvantages,  but,  w'ithin  limits,  tends  to  increased 
speed. 

In  America  a  practice  prevails  of  lengthening  the  heels  of 


trotting  horses'  hind  shoes  with  this  object,  although  the 
rationale  of  the  process  is  not  recognised.  The  following  is 
a  possible  explanation. 

Before  actually  coming  to  the  ground  the  horse's  foot 
assumes  the  position  C  (fig.  206),  with  the  sole  directed  more 
or  less  forwards.  During  the  next  instant  it  describes  the  arc 
of  the  circle  C  D  and  is  firmly  pdanted  on  the  earth. 

If,  however,  the  heels  of  the  shoe  are  prolonged,  although  the 
hoof  still  tends  to  describe  the  curve  C  D  (fig.  207),  the  heel  C, 
describing  a  parallel  but  larger  curve,  will  touch  the  earth  at 
A'.     The  increase  of  the  stride  will  then  equal  the  distance 


214  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

A  to  a'.  Although  this  may  be  very  little  on  each  occasion 
it  becomes  an  important  quantity  when  multiplied  several 
hundred  times,  and  quite  suffices  to  convert  a  losing  into  a 
winning  race.  The  exertion  and  risk  of  strain  are  naturally 
greater,  but  are  of  little  importance  when  contrasted  with  the 
gain. 

Heavy  horses  with  tumed-in  toes  go  best  in  rather  heavy 
shoes  with  broad  outside  quarter,  fitted  rather  '  full '  and  with 


D 


A      A' 

Fia.  207. 

nail  holes  punched  somewhat  coarser  than  usual.  This  gives  a 
broader  bearing  surface  outside. 

It  is  scarcely  needful  to  say  that,  in  choosing  a  shoe,  the 
position  and  direction  of  the  nail  holes  must  be  taken  into 
account,  as  well  as  its  form,  a  point  of  great  importance  in 
shoeing  defective  feet. 

Viewed  from  the  ground  surface  a  well-made  front  shoe  is 
seen  to  be  rounded  in  form,  almost  as  broad  as  long,  the  two 
branches  of  approximately  equal  length,  the  inner,  however, 
being  somewhat  less  round. 

The  cover  is  almost  the  same  throughout,  the  toe  and 
quarters,  which  sustain  the  severest  wear,  being  rather 
broader  than  the  branches ;  the  nail  holes  are  suitable  in  size 
and  number  to  the  class  of  shoe  and  placed  so  as  not  to  be 
injured  by  drawing  the  clip ;  the  two  toe-nails  are  in  a  line 
with  each  other,  at  equal  distances  from  the  centre  of  the 
toe,  and  punched  somewhat  obliquely;  the  last  nail  holes 
should  be  opposite  the  centre  of  the  shoe  (antero-posterior 
measurement) ;  the  outer  nail  holes  are  punched  a  little 
*  coarse,'  the  inner  at  about  the  same  distance  from  the  margin 
of  the  shoe  as  those  of  the  toe.  All  the  nail  holes  should  be 
equally  spaced,  quadrangular,  and  clean-punched,  the  counter- 
sinks being  sufficiently  deep  to  allow  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
nail  head  to  enter. 


FORM  AND  PROPORTIONS  OF  SHOE.  215 

Viewed  from  the  side  the  hoof  surface  is  flat,  except  under 
very  special  circumstances,  as  when  the  toe  is  'rolled,'  and 
the  shoe  of  the  same  thickness  throughout.  The  fore  shoe 
should  only  carry  calkins  when  a  toe-piece  of  equal  height  is 
used. 

Viewed  from  above,  the  nail  holes  of  the  inner  quarter  and 
inner  toe  should  be  seen  to  open  nearer  the  margin  of  the  shoe 
than  those  of  the  outer  quarter. 

A  well-made  hind  shoe  should  be  of  oval  shape,  the  branches 
of  the  same  length,  the  inner,  however,  being  straighter  than  the 
outer,  the  toe  should  exhibit  more  '  cover '  than  the  branches, 
the  heels  should  be  finished  square,  the  toe  should  show  no  nail 
holes,  the  nail  holes  of  the  inner  side  should  be  punched  finer 
than  those  of  the  outer,  and  the  last  nail  hole  of  one  side  should 
be  approximately  opposite  that  of  the  other.  The  other  charac- 
teristics are  similar  to  those  of  the  fore  shoe,  save  that  the  toe 
(in  draught  horses)  is  thicker  than  the  heels. 

Calkins,  even  when  of  equal  height,  entail  certain  disadvan- 
tages. Thus  they  lift  the  frog  clear  of  the  ground  and  place 
it  out  of  action ;  entering  the  ground  unequally  they  tend  to 
strain  the  joints  ;  in  turning  or  in  the  stable  they  are  apt  to  be 
set  down  on  the  coronet  of  the  opposite  foot  and  cause  danger- 
ous wounds.  Their  power  of  checking  slips  rapidly  decreases 
with  wear.  They  are  quite  out  of  place  when  used  to  raise 
naturally  low  heels,  and  in  no  way  prevent  strain  of  the  tendons 
(as  is  often  supposed),  because  the  tendons  themselves  are  then 
of  a  length  corresponding  to  the  flatness  of  the  foot.  Further- 
more, they  cause  the  foot  to  rest  continually  on  an  inclined 
surface.  Though  employed  for  all  classes,  they  are  most  useful 
on  the  hind  shoes  of  heavy  cart  horses,  where  they  favour  the 
action  of  the  tendons  during  draught  and  ensure  a  firm  foot- 
hold on  slippery  ground. 

In  shoeing  horses  with  turned-in  toes  the  increased  wear  of 
the  outer  limb  of  the  shoe  is  compensated  by  making  the  '  web  * 
somewhat  broader.  Upright  feet  require  a  shoe  with  web  of 
the  same  width  at  quarters  and  toe,  or  somewhat  broader  at 
the  toe. 

As  the  weight  of  the  shoe  has  considerable  influence  in 
determining  the  style  of  going,  animals  with  little  action  are 
sometimes    shod  with  a  heavy  shoe,  and  in  those    having  a 


216 


THE   PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


tendency  to  brush  or  strike  it  may  be  desirable  to  weight  the 
toe  or  quarter  as  afterwards  referred  to.  The  exact  amount  to 
apply  requires  careful  judgment. 

In  choosing  a  new  shoe  the  old  one  is  usually  the  best 
guide.  Some  farriers  use  simply  a  straw  on  which  they 
mark  the  length  and  breadth.  During  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century  a  large  number  of  instruments  were  invented 
for  this  purpose,  with  the  object  not  only  of  showing  the  length 


Fig.  208.— Ewerloff's  Podometer. 

and  breadth,  but  the  exact  circumference  of  the  hoof,  and  one 
form  is  still  regularly  used  in  the  French  army.  Most  were 
unpractical ;  tlie  only  one  of  any  A^alue  was  that  suggested  by 
the  Swedish  officer,  Ewerloff,  in  1876  (see  fig.  208).  It  con- 
sists of  strong  tin  and  is  cut  into  teeth  as  shown.  In  usino'  it 
the  instrument  is  laid  on  the  hoof,  the  shape  of  which  is  marked 
on  it  with  chalk.  '  Podometers,'  however,  are  now  never  used 
in  England. 


GUIDING   PEINCIPLES   IN   SHOEING    HACKS. 


217 


7.  Choice  of  the  Shoe  fou  Specific  Uses. 

We  shall  now  consider  the  shoes  more  commonly  employed 
in  each  of  the  classes  mentioned  on  p.  147.  The  general 
principles  to  be  observed  in  shoeing  each  class  (such  as  hacks, 
hunters,  race-horses,  etc.)  will  hrst  be  given  and  will  be 
followed  by  descriptions  of  specific  slices  for  the  uses  indicated. 


1.  HACKS. 

As  saddle  horses  are  seldom  used  for  more  than  a  few  hours 
per  day,  they  require  light,  closely  fitted  shoes,  which  afford 
sufficient  protection  to  the  feet  without  endangering  '  cutting  * 
or  '  overreaching,'  and  without  in  any  way  impeding  freedom  of 
action.     x\t  the  same  time,  it  is  very  bad  policy  to  unduly 


Fig.  209. — Fullered  front  shoe  for  hack.  As  in  several  of  the 
following  figures,  the  foot  has  l)een  cut  out  so  that  bars 
appear  unduly  prolonged. 

# 

reduce  the  '  cover '  of  the  shoe,  as  is  often  done  in  order  to 
produce  a  neat  appearance,  because  a  certain  quantity  of  iron  is 
necessary  to  give  durability,  and  as  the  '  cover '  is  reduced  the 
thickness  of  the  shoe  must  be  pioportiouately  increased.  Carried 
to  an  extreme,  this  narrowing  of  the  shoe  is  a  grave  evil. 

In  preparing  the  foot,  the  heels  should  be  left  as  strong  as 
possible,  because,  under  the  rider,  the  pastern  descends  and  the 
major  part  of  the  weight  is  thrown  on  the  back  of  the  foot. 


218  THE   PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 

leading,  in  weak  heels,  to  the  production  of  bruises,  corns,  etc. 
Where  the  heels  are  low  and  spreading,  the  heels  of  the  shoe 
may  be  fitted  rather  fuller  than  usual  and  somewhat  prolonged. 
The  hind  shoe  should  be  of  equal  height  inside  and  out,  the 
inner  branch  fashioned  almost  straight  from  the  inner  edge  of 
the  toe  to  the  posterior  third  of  the  foot  and  made  rather 
narrower  than  the  outer,  or  a  feather-edged  shoe  may  be 
applied.  This  has  the  advantage  of  preventing  injury  to  the 
coronet  of  the  opposite  leg  either  in  work  or  in  the  stable. 

The  clip  should  be  at  the  centre  of  the  toe,  which  should  be 
well  rounded  in  front.  The  heels  may  project  ^-  to  -|-  inch. 
In  general,  the  shoes  of  the  hack  resemble  those  of  the  hunter, 
next  described,  though,  as  the  pace  of  the  hack  is  slower  and 
the  efforts  he  makes  less  violent  than  those  of  the  hunter,  the 
excessive  precautions  taken  in  the  case  of  the  latter  are  un- 
necessary. 


SPECIAL  SHOES  FOR  HACKS 


FULLERED  FOEE  SHOE  (Fig.   210). 

Made  from  ^  inch  x  ^  iron. 

This  shoe  is  suitable  for  animals  with  small,  upright,  '  boxy ' 
feet,  or  for  small  hunters,  cobs,  and  ponies.  It  should  not 
be  used  where  the  feet  are  flat  or  weak.  The  shoe  is  made 
*  wrong  way  on,'  and  thus  wider  at  ground  than  at  foot 
surface,  and  therefore  gives  show  cobs,  etc.,  the  appearance  of 
having  large  well-developed  feet,  even  when  this  is  not  the  case. 
The  inside  edge  is  filed  out,  and  as  the  '  cover '  is  narrow,  the 
shoe  gives  the  foot  an  appearance  of  extra  width.  Filing  out 
the  inner  edge  also  lessens  the  chance  of  the  horse  '  forging,'  the 
noise  of  which  is  often  very  distinctly  heard  when  the  animal 
is  trotted  on  grass.  The  shoe  shown,  being  intended  for  a 
defective  foot,  has  eight  nail  holes,  but  might  be  made  with  six  ; 
and  if  required,  the  last  quarter  nail  on  the  outside  might  be 
placed  further  back.  To  give  extra  durability,  the  shoe  may 
be  made  of  steel. 


HACK  S. 


Fig.  210. -Fullered  fore  shoe  for  hack.     Made  from  h  inch  x  jS^Aron. 


[To  face  p.  218. 


HACKS. 


Fig.  211.— Fullered  seated  fore  shoe  with  thick  heels.     Made  of  i  x  |  inch  iron. 


To  face,  p.  219.] 


SPECIAL   FORE   SHOES   FOR   HACKS.  219 

FULLEEED  SEATED  EOKE  SHOE  WITH  THICK 

HEELS  (Fig.  211). 

Made  of  ^  X  ^  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  used  chiefly  for  horses  suffering  from  strain 
■of  tendons,  ligaments,  etc.,  the  tension  on  which  it  relieves, 
iillowing  the  animals  to  work  with  less  pain.  In  larger 
sizes  it  is  also  very  useful  for  cart  horses  with  strain  of 
the  sub-carpal  ligament.  Occasionally  such  a  shoe  is  applied 
to  the  lower  of  two  carriage  horses  which  work  together,  so  as 
to  bring  it  more  on  a  level  with  its  fellow ;  but  this  is  scarcely 
a  legitimate  use  of  the  shoe,  though  sometimes  resorted  to  by 
dealers.  The  disadvantaoes  of  the  shoe  are  that  it  lifts  the  heels 
from  the  ground  and  thus  prevents  frog  pressure,  a  condition 
soon  followed  by  atrophy  of  the  frog,  thrush,  etc. ;  that  it  is 
-apt  to  press  unduly  on  the  heels,  and,  especially  in  weak  feet, 
to  cause  corns,  and  that,  by  throwing  increased  weight  on  the 
toe,  it  favours  the  production  of  sand-crack,  or  aggravates  it  if 
-existent. 

As  a  rule,  thick  heels  are  contra-indicated  in  front  shoes, 
particularly  in  shoeing  horses  with  flat  or  dropped  soles.  The 
farrier  is  often  asked  to  thicken  the  heels  of  shoes  for  horses 
which  wear  at  that  point,  but  the  request  should  not  be  com- 
plied with. 

In  making  this  shoe,  the  toe  is  first  thinned  and  the  heels 
afterwards  thickened  ('  upset ')  by  a  few  blows  delivered  in  the 
direction  of  the  web  of  the  shoe,  whilst  the  latter  is  held  in  the 
vice.      It  is  difficult  to  '  upset '  the  heels  on  the  anvil  itself. 


220 


THE   PKACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


2.  HUNTERS. 


The  ground  surface  of  hunting  shoes  must  be  formed  with 
due  regard  to  the  prevention  of  slipping  and  the  minimising  of 
suction  in  deep  ground. '  This  is  obtained  by  dishing  out  the 
ground  surface,  the  dished  portion  terminating  just  in  front  of 
the  heel  at  a  sharp  angle.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken 
to  prevent  overreaching,  and  all  hunting  shoes  should  be  of 
particularly  good  construction,  neitlier  too  broad  nor  too  heavy. 

The  concave  shoe  herewith  illustrated  is  a  very  favourite 
hunting  shoe.  It  possesses  the  advantage  of  being  light,  giving 
a  good  foothold,  and,  owing  to  the  slope  of  the  heels,  which 
may  if  necessary  be  slightly  embedded  in  the  horn  of  the  wall, 
it  presents  no  projections  on  which  the  horse  might  tread  or 


Fig.  212.— Fullered  front  shoe  for  hunter. 

which  might  be  cauglit  in  heavy  ground  or  when  'landing' 
over  a  fence.  The  concave  shape  causes  the  shoe  to  enter  the 
surface  of  the  oTound  at  each  stride  and  is  said  to  facilitate  its 
withdrawal. 

For  animals  with  strong  walled  feet  and  thick,  well-arched 
soles  this  shoe  is  probably  the  most  suitable.  When,  in  addi- 
tion, the  sole  is  thin  and  flat  more  cover  is  indispensable,  and 
the  shoe  shown  in  tig.  212  is  to  be  preferred.  A  certain 
breadth  is  indispensable  to  prevent  the  shoe  '  spreading '  when 
half   worn    through   and    so    cutting   the   opposite   fetlock   or 


GUIDING   PKINCIPLES   IN   SHOEING   HUNTERS. 


221 


•coronet.  Abroad,  many  hunters  are  shod  with  leathers,  the  sole 
being  protected  with  a  thick  '  stopping '  of  tar  and  tow,  and  in 
France  the  use  of  a  soft  copper  plate,  applied  precisely  like  a 
leather  pad,  has  even  been  recommended. 


Fig.  213.— Lateral  view  of  concave  front  shoe  for  hack  or  hunter. 

The  hind  shoe  usually  has  a  low  calkin  outside  and  is 
*  knocked-up '  inside.  The  inside  branch  must  be  fitted  very 
closely  and  its  outer  wall  (i.e.,  the  wall  nearest  the  opposite 
shoe)  should  slope  slightly  downwards  and  inwards.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  remove  any  rough  edges  from  either  the  shoe 
or  margin  of  the  hoof,  especially  if  the  animal  '  goes  close.* 


Fig.  214.— Hind  shoe  for  hunter.  The  toe  is  rounded  and  set  back 
to  prevent  overreach.  The  sole  has  been  pared  so  as  to  cause  the 
bar  to  appear  as  if  extending  to  the  point  of  frog. 

The  toe  should  be  square  and  fitted  close ;  the  clips  placed  on 
either  side  of  the  toe.  The  heels  should  be  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible of  the  same  height,  though,  as  the  hunter  usually  travels 
on  soft  ground,  a  slight  inequality  in  this  respect  is  less  in- 
jurious than  in  animals  working  on  hard  roads. 


222 


THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 


As  hunters  are  very  liable  to  overreach  when  landing  over  a 
fence  their  hind  shoes  require  special  care  in  fitting.  The  toe 
must  be  fitted  straight,  be  well  rounded  both  inside  and  out 
and  set  back  slightly  behind  the  margin  of  the  toe  wall.  The 
portion  of  the  shoe  which  inflicts  the  wound  is  usually  the 
back,  not  the  front  margin  of  the  toe  of  the  shoe.  The  reason 
of  horses  overreaching  is  often  to  be  found  in  the  toe  of  the 
front  foot  being  left  too  long  and  the  heels  being  lowered. 
This  renders  it  more  difficult  for  the  muscles  of  the  fore-limb 
to  lift  the  body-weight ;  hence  the  animal  does  not  '  get  away  ^ 
quickly  in  front  and  the  hind  foot  overtakes  the  fore,  inflicting 
a  wound.  The  remedy  here  is  to  shorten  and  round  the  toe  of 
the  fore-foot  and  to  spare  the  heels. 


TEMPOEARY  SHOES. 

During  mauoBUvres  or  a  rim  with  hounds  a  horse  not  un- 
frequently  casts  a  shoe,  and,  to  prevent  injury  and  breakage 
of  the  hoof,  some  special  contrivance  becomes  necessary. 

To  meet  such  emergencies  shoes  have  been  invented  which 
can  be  easily  applied  and  which  dispense  with  the  use  of  nails. 


Fig.  215. — Temporary  shoe  with  leather  boot  and  straps,    o,  hinge. 


Several  have  been  patented,  but  the  most  practical  is  that 
figured.  It  consists  of  a  light  shoe  hinged  in  the  centre  and 
provided  with  a  kind  of  leather  boot,  which  fits  over  the  hoof 
and  is  fastened  by  straps.  The  illustration  (fig.  215)  shows 
its  form  and  construction  very  clearly. 


H  U  N  T  E  R  vS. 


Fig.  216.— Fullered  seated  fore  shoe.     Made  of  |  x  i  inch  iron. 


Fig.  217. — Concave  partially-fullered,  *  dub-toed'  fore  shoe.     Made  from 

f  X  J  inch  iron. 

To  face -p.  223.] 


HUNTING   SHOES.  22S 


SPECIAL  SEOES  FOR  HUNTERS. 


FULLEEED  SEATED  FORE  SHOE  (Fig.  216). 
Made  of^x^  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  useful  for  hunters  with  fleshy  soles,  or  for 
animals  with  wide  feet  and  slightly-dropped  soles.  It  should 
not  be  seated  out  much  on  the  foot  surface.  Many  animals 
forge  in  going,  but  on  account  of  their  feet  being  weak,  and  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  '  boxing-up '  a  concave  shoe  to  any 
great  extent  at  the  quarters  and  heels,  they  must  be  shod  with 
a  fullered  shoe,  as  this  can  be  fitted  comparatively  '  full '  at  the 
heels.  To  prevent  the  square  toe  of  the  hind  striking  the 
inside  margin  of  the  fore  shoe,  and  thus  producing  noise  or 
tearing  off  the  shoe,  this  fullered  shoe  is  filed  out  around  the 
inside  of  the  toe  and  quarters.  The  more  marked  the  sound, 
the  more  should  the  quarters  be  filed  out.  The  shoe  is  most 
useful  for  hunters  which  are  exercised  on  roads,  though  on 
account  of  its  giving  an  appearance  of  strength  to  a  really 
weak  foot,  without  at  the  same  time  proving  heavy,  it  is  often 
used  for  show  purposes.  For  ordinary  work,  as  on  carriage 
horses  which  require  cover,  and  which  forge  slightly,  this  shoe 
might  with  advantage  carry  seven  instead  of  five  nail  holes. 


CONCAVE  PARTIALLY-FULLEKED  'DUB-TOED' 
FOEE  SHOE  (Fig.  217). 

Made  from  :f  X  ^  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  indicated  for  '  stale '  hunters,  broken-kneed 
horses,  animals  which  catch  the  toe  and  trip,  and  in  some 
cases  for  horses  with  contracted  flexor  tendons.  Before  fitting 
the  shoe,  the  toe  of  the  foot  must  be  well-rounded  with  the 
rasp. 

In  making  the  shoe,  about  two  and  a  half  inches  of  the  toe 
are  left  solid  {i.e.,  is  not  fullered).     This  portion  is  somewhat 


224  THE   PKACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 

thinned  down,  and  is  rolled  round  on  the  beak  of  the  anvil,  the 
outside  toe  being  most  curved,  as  this  is  the  part  which  gener- 
ally comes  lirst  in  contact  with  the  ground.  It  is  very 
important  that  the  fullering  cease  well  l)ehind  the  toe,  both  to 
give  greater  strength  at  this  part,  and  also  to  prevent  any 
interruption  of  the  regular  curved  form  of  the  toe.  Were  the 
fullering  continued  round  the  shoe,  the  back  wall  of  the  groove 
would  present  a  sharp  angle,  liable  to  catch  in  the  ground  and 
cause  the  horse  to  stumble  to  an  even  greater  extent  than 
occurs  with  an  ordinary  shoe. 

If  considered  necessary,  a  toe-clip  can  be  drawn,  though  the 
rolling  of  the  toe  usually  gives  a  sufficient  hold  on  the  foot. 

CONCAVE  FULLERED,  FEATHER-EDGED  FORE 

•    SHOE  (Fig.  218). 

Made  of  fx  i  inch  iron  in  concave  tool. 

This  is  a  useful  shoe  for  liorses  that  cut,  brush,  or  strike. 
By  chamfering  the  inside  toe  and  quarter  a  much  greater  foot- 
bearing  surface  can  be  preserved  than  was  possible  in  the  old- 
fashioned  feather-edged  shoe.  The  inside  limb  and  heel  of  the 
shoe  do  not  then  sink  into  the  corresponding  portions  of  the 
foot,  and  the  risk  of  producing  corns,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  weak 
foot,  splitting  away  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  the  wall  is 
avoided. 

The  two  inside  toe-nails  being  stamped,  the  inner  toe  and 
quarter  can  be  fitted  finer  to  the  foot  and  the  risk  of  striking 
lessened.  Should  the  horse  brush  badlv,  a  sinsfle  nail  hole  can 
be  stamped  at  the  inside  toe,  close  to  the  clip.  For  a  horse 
which  crosses  his  legs  in  going,  or  is  '  tied -in  at  the  elbows,' 
this  shoe  answers  exceedingly  well,  and  may  replace  the  ordi- 
nary feather-edged  shoe. 

STAMPED  FORE  SHOE  (Fig.  219). 

3fade  from  Charlier  steel  -pg-  inch  square. 

This  shoe  is  useful  for  hunters  or  hacks  with  strong,  '  boxy ' 
feet.     Horses  which  forge  or  cut  when  provided  with  shoes  of 


H  U  N  T  E  E  S. 


Fig.  218. — Concave  fullered,  feather-edged  fore  shoe.     Made  off  x  ^  iucli 

iron  in  concave  too]. 


Fig.  219.     Stamped  fore  shoe.     Made  from  Cliarlier  steel 

iV  inch  square, 

[To  face  p.  224. 


FORE   SHOES   FOR    HUNTERS.  225 

ordinary  cover  often  cease  to  do  so  when  shod  with  this  shoe. 
It  is  useful  both  for  fore  and  hind  feet,  and  should  always  be 
kept  perfectly  flat,  as  shown.  The  heels  are  sloped  off  obliquely 
to  prevent  their  coming  in  contact  with  the  elbows  when  the 
horse  lies  down,  and  producing  '  capped  elbow.' 

Where  the  horse  brushes,  the  outer  margin  of  the  inner 
limb  of  shoe  should  be  chamfered  down  before  stamping  the 
inside  toe-nails.  This  prevents  the  parts  burring  over  and 
forming  a  saw-like,  cutting  edge  which  might  otherwise  inflict 
severe  injury  on  the  opposite  limb. 

Chamfering  down,  however,  causes  the  heads  of  the  nails  to 
overhang  the  edge  of  the  shoe  when  the  latter  is  nailed  on ; 
these  overhanging  portions  must  therefore  be  afterwards  filed 
or  rasped  level  with  the  edge.  Another  point  worthy  of  note 
is  that,  owing  to  the  difference  in  hardness,  iron  nails  have  a 
tendency  to  sink  when  inserted  in  steel  shoes,  and  so  to  allow 
the  clenches  to  rise.  The  constant  hammering:  of  the  feet  on 
the  ground  drives  the  nail  further  and  further  home,  the  head 
and  neck  gradually  yielding. 

This  shoe  is  too  light,  and  wears  too  short  a  time  for  work  on 
roads ;  its  use  is  therefore  chiefly  confined  to  animals  exercised 
on  grass. 


226  'THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 


CONCAVE  PAETIALLY-FULLEKED  HIND  SHOE 

(Fig.  220). 

Made  in  concave  tool  from  ^  X  |-  inch  iron  or  {preferahly) 

from  old  shoes. 

This  shoe  is  intended  for  a  hunter  that  cuts  his  fetlock  joints 
and,  at  the  same  time,  overreaches.  It  is  level  on  the  ground- 
surface,  is  fullered  on  the  outside,  and  two  nails  are  stamped  at 
the  inside  heel.  Clips  are  drawn  at  the  outside  toe  and  inside 
heel.     The  inside  edge  is  chamfered  down,  and  hot  rasped  off. 

The  shoe  must  be  fitted  straight  across  the  toe,  which  must 
be  well  set  back,  and  the  inside  toe  fitted  very  fine.  The 
clenches  of  the  heel  nails  inside  must  be  well  drawn  down  on 
the  pincers,  and  the  heads  of  the  nails  rasped  off  level  with 
the  shoe. 


CONCAVE  PAETIALLY-FULLERED  HIND  SHOE 

(Fig.  221). 

Made  of  ^  x  ^  inch  iron  in  concave  tool. 

This  shoe  has  the  inside  chamfered  down,  and  two  nail 
holes  stamped  at  the  inside  toe.  It  is  useful  for  horses  that 
cut  or  brush  their  hind  fetlock  joints.  Having  a  calkin  on 
the  outside  heel,  it  gives  the  horse  a  good  grip  of  the  ground. 
As  the  calkin  enters  the  ground,  the  balance  of  the  foot  is 
not  disturbed  to  any  appreciable  extent,  and  in  this  case  its 
advantages  far  outweigh  its  drawbacks. 

The  illustration  does  not  show  them,  but  clips  can  be  drawn 
at  the  toe  and  outside  quarter,  or  on  either  side  of  the  toe,  as 
is  usual  among  hunters ;  the  former  method  is  preferable,  as  it 
prevents  the  shoe  driving  back.  It  is  also  of  great  advantage 
when  the  horse  cuts  '  between  hair  and  hoof,'  as  it  allows  the 
inside  toe  and  quarter  (i.e.,  the  parts  with  which  injury  is  most 
often  inflicted)  to  be  fitted  very  close.  In  such  case  a  single 
inside  nail  hole  near   the    toe-clip  is  preferable  to   the   two 


HUNTERS. 


Fig.  220.— Concave  partially -fullered  hind  shoe.    :\Iade  in  concave  tool  from 
i^  X  I  inch  iron  or  (preferably)  from  old  shoes. 


Fig.  221.— Concave  partially-fullered  hind  shoe. 

in  concave  tool. 


Made  of  .f   ■    ^  inch  iron 


{To  face  p.  22(5. 


SPECIAL   HIND   SHOES   FOR   HUNTERS.  227 

shown.  By  keeping  the  toe  solid  {i.e.,  not  fullering  it)  the 
chance  of  overreaching  is  lessened,  and  its  results  when  occur- 
ring are  rendered  less  grave. 

Chamfering,  or  rasping  down  the  inner  limb,  is  done  in 
the  vice  whilst  the  shoe  is  hot.  It  minimises  the  risk  of  this 
part  of  the  shoe  striking  the  opposite  limb,  and  prevents  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  shoe  wearing  with  a  '  burr '  or  saw-like 
edge.  Like  that  previously  described,  the  above  shoe  has  a 
great  advantage  over  ordinary  feather-edged  patterns  in  that  it 
presents  a  broad  bearing  surface  to  the  foot,  in  which  it  does 
not  tend  to  become  embedded. 


228  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

CONCAVE  PAKTIALLY-FULLEKED  HIND  SHOE 

(Fig.  222). 

Made  in  concave  tool  from  f  X  J  inch  iron  or  from  old  slioes. 

This  is  a  useful  shoe  for  a  horse  that  cuts  and  drives  back 
or  '  spreads '  his  shoes.  It  is  for  a  narrower  foot  than  that 
preceding  and  is  made  by  a  different  workman,  as  is  apparent 
from  the  shape  and  fullering. 

The  shoe  has  a  toe  and  quarter  clip  and  a  calkin  outside. 
When  single  calkins  are  not  higher  than  the  knocked-up  portion 
of  the  opposite  limb  of  shoe,  they  do  little  harm,  and  for  certain 
kinds  of  country  are  probably  an  advantage,  inasmuch  as  they 
minimise  the  tendency  to  side-slips.  These  concave  feather- 
edged  shoes,  with  the  inside  chamfered  down,  are  tooled  out  to 
the  heel  on  the  inside ;  the  chamfering  is  done  on  the  anvil 
afterwards.  As  this  draws  down  the  parts  {i.e.,  makes  them 
longer),  it  is  necessary,  in  turning  the  shoe,  to  leave  more  iron 
at  the  outer  than  at  the  inner  side,  otherwise  a  portion  has  to 
be  cut  off  after  the  inside  is  finished,  thus  wasting  material. 

CHARLIER  HIND  SHOE  (Fig.  223). 
Made  from  Charlier  steel  -pg-  inch  square. 

This  is  a  companion  shoe  to  the  Charlier  fore  shoe  described 
elsewhere.  Being  light  and  level  on  the  ground  surface,  it  is 
useful  in  cases  of  cutting,  and  for  a  similar  reason  it  often 
checks  or  prevents  forging.  Horses  which  kick  much  in  the 
stable  and  get  their  shoes  off  are  often  shod  in  this  way,  as  the 
heels  of  the  shoe  can  be  sloped  off,  and  the  chance  of  their 
catching  in  boards,  etc.,  minimised. 

Clips  may  be  drawn  at  the  toe,  at  each  side  of  the  toe,  at 
the  toe  and  quarter,  or  toe  and  inside  heel.  Owing  to  the 
light  section  of  iron,  some  care  is  needed  to  prevent  the  outer 
edge  of  the  shoe  bulging  when  nail  holes  are  being  stamped. 


HUN  T  E  E  S. 


Fig.  222. — Concave  partially -fullered  hiud  shoe,  made  in  concave  tool,  from 

I  X  ^  inch  iron,  or  from  old  shoes. 


Fig.  223.— Charlier  hind  shoe,  made  from  Charlier  steel,  7-1 6th  inch  square. 


[  To  face  p.  228. 


GUIDING    PRINCIPLES   IN  SHOEING   EACE-HORSES. 


229 


3.  RACE-HOESES. 

The  chief  pomts  to  be  aiDiecl  at  in  shoeing  race -horses  are 
to  secure  lightness  and  a  rough  ground  surface,  though  light- 
ness must  never  be  pushed  to  such  a  point  as  to  endanger 
the  breaking  or  bending  of  the  .shoe.  These  requirements 
are  best  met  by  a  slender  steel  shoe  with  a  deep  con- 
tinuous fullering  round  the  entire  ground  surface,  dividing 
it  into  two  sharp  borders.  To  prevent  the  shoe  bending, 
however,  the  nail  holes  should  be  continued  somewhat  farther 
back  than  usual,  and  the  racing  plate  shown,  though  excellent 
in  other  respects,  would  probably  be  improved  by  a  sixth 
nail  hole.  Since  the  introduction  of  steel  (for  sections,  see 
page  131)  it  has  become  possible  to  produce  much  lighter  shoes 


Fig.  224. — Raciuij  plate.     As  in  several  of  these  illustrations.  Uie  foot  has  been 
so  prepared  as  to  cause  the  bars  to  appear  with  unusual  distinctness. 


and  even  to  increase  the  cover  (a  sensible  advantage)  without 
adding  weight.  The  section  shown  on  next  page  is  for  iron,  and 
is  still  sometimes  used. 

For  training,  light  fullered  shoes,  about  six  to  eight  ounces  in 
weight,  are  used.  The  hind  shoes  are  fiat.  These  are  exchanged 
on  the  day  preceding  the  event  for  racing  plates  weighing  about 
four  ounces.  The  reduction  in  weight  is  extremely  important 
when  one  remembers  how  frequently  the  limbs  are  lifted, 
especially  as  the  shoe  is  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  limb, 
and  is  therefore  acting  on  a  lever  of  great  length. 


"30  THE   PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

The  plate  is  fitted  short  and  close,  the  heels  are  rounded 
off  and  prolonged  upwards,  fitting  into  a  niche  formed  in 
the  wall  of  the  heel,  so  that  the  union  between  the  heel  of 
the  foot  and  that  of  the  shoe  shows  an  unbroken  line,  the 
inner  margin  of  the  shoe  is  concave,  and  the  wall  of  the  inner 
branch,  looking  towards  the  opposite  shoe,  rounded  off.     Plates 

for    front    feet    are    occasionally    provided 
with  a  low,  strong  calkin  to  prevent  side- 
slip.    In  some  parts  of  France  it  is  custom- 
FiG.  225.  ary  to  invert  the  seating  of  the  hoof  surface, 

i.e.,  to  make  the  inner  margin  of  the  hoof 
surface  a  little  higher  than  the  outer,  so  as  to  fit  close  to  the 
sole  instead  of  leaving  a  space,  the  object  being  to  prevent 
the  toe  of  the  hind  foot  catching  in  that  of  the  fore,  an 
accident  which  is  liable  to  be  followed  by  a  terrible  fall. 

The  hind  shoe  is  usually  furnished  with  a  calkin  outside  to 
prevent  side-slip,  and  a  plain  heel  within.  The  toe  is  rounded 
off  and  set  well  back,  a  portion  of  horn  being  allowed  to  pro- 
ject in  front.  The  clip  is  placed  at  the  centre  of  the  toe,  both 
in  front  and  hind  plates.  By  setting  the  shoe  back  in  this 
way  the  danger  of  overreaching  is  diminished  and  its  con- 
sequences rendered  less  grave,  while  the  action  of  the  limb  is 
favoured  as  the  tendons  are  enabled  to  act  at  a  better  angle. 


EACE-  HOESES. 


Fig,  226.— Racing  plate  (fore).     Made  from  i\  x  §  inch  iron. 


Fig.  227. — Concave  fullered  fore  shoe    for  steeplechasing}.     Made  from 


I  X  §  incli  iron. 


To  face  p.  231.] 


RACING   AND   STEEPLECHASING    FORE    SHOES.  231 


EACING  PLATE  (FOEE)  (Fig.  226). 


Made  from  j'^.   x  ^  inch  ii 


on. 


This  is  an  old-fashioned  plate,  such  as  was  used  thirty  years 
ago  when  horses  were  taken  to  race-meetings  in  the  ordinary 
light  shoes  in  which  they  did  their  work.  The  shoes  were 
taken  off  and  the  plates  substituted  at  the  stables  close  to  the 
meeting. 

The  plate  shown  is  made  in  a  very  small  concave  tool,  the 
groove  in  which  is  provided  with  a  ridge  at  the  bottom  so  as  to 
form  the  fuller,  as  the  section  of  iron  is  too  hght  to  be  fullered 
in  the  ordinary  way.  A  similar  device  is  useful  in  making 
small  pony  shoes,  say  3  to  3^  inches.  I*ony  hind  shoes  are 
sometimes  made  in  the  same  tool,  but  it  is  preferable  to  use  a 
special  tool,  without  the  ridge,  for  these,  as,  when  the  fullering 
is  continued  around  the  toe,  the  front  of  the  shoe  presents  a 
knife-like  edge,  capable  of  inflicting  severe  injury  on  the  fore 
foot  should  the  animal  overreach. 


CONCAVE  FULLEEED  FOEE  SHOE  (FOE  STEEPLE- 
CHASING)  (Fig.  227). 

Made  from  -I  X  f^  inch  iron . 

This  shoe  is  useful  for  steeplechasers  or  hunters  exercised  on 
grass  or  harrowed  land,  but  is  too  light  and  wears  too  quickly 
for  animals  exercised  on  macadam  roads.  It  is  intended  for 
medium-sized  feet,  viz.,  from  4;|  to  5^  inches.  The  section  is 
usually  given  in  a  concave  tool.  Owing  to  its  thinness  it  per- 
mits the  frogs  to  come  well  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and 
acts  as  a  preventive  of  thrush,  contraction  of  the  foot,  and 
wiring  in  of  the  heels.  It  is  therefore  indicated  for  upright 
boxy  feet  with  signs  of  commencing  disease. 


232 


THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 


4.  TROTTING  HORSES. 

In  theory,  the  trotting  shoe  should  be  as  Hght  as  possible, 
but  inasmuch  as  trotting  courses  differ  materially  from  the 
ordinary  race-course,  increased   durability  is  necessary.      The 


Fig.  228.— Steel  fore  shoe  for  trotter  with  toe-weight.     Total  weight,  15  ounces. 
a,  projection  on  wliich  the  weight  b  is  slipped  and  fastened  by  screw  C. 


best  shoe  is  broad  at  the  toe,  the  cover  diminishing  markedly 
towards   the  heels.      The  broad  toe  prevents  the  hoof  sinkino- 


Fig.  229.— Steel  hiud  shoe  for  trotter,  one-third  natural  size.    Weight,  5^  ounces. 

in  sandy  or  moist  soil.      The  hoof  surface  is  flat,  the  heels 
rounded  and  bevelled  off ;  there  is  only  a  slight  clip ;  the  six 


GUIDING   PKINCIPLES   IN   SHOEING   TROTTING   HORSES. 


233 


nail  holes  are  sunk  in  a  deep  fuller  extending  completely  round 
the  shoe  ;  the  last  nail  holes  approach  rather  closer  to  the  heels 
than  in  the  ordinary  shoe.  The  weight  is  about  five  to  six 
ounces. 

The  hind  shoe  is  narrower  than  the  fore ;  the  heels  are 
prolonged  as  shown,  and  terminate  in  small  three-cornered 
calkins ;  sometimes  they  project  an  inch  or  even  more  beyond 
the  heels  and  are  of  unequal  length,  the  outer  being  the  longer. 
This  arrangement  is  believed  to  make  the  animal  '  gain  ground.' 
There  are  six  nail  holes  and  the  fullering  is  broken  at  the  toe. 
The  clip,  when  present,  is  placed  considerably  to  the  inside  of 
the  centre  of  the  toe,  which  is  carefully  rounded. 

In    training,  the    Americans    use   heavier   shoes   and    atfix 


Fig.  230.— Hind  hoof  shod  with  weighted  shoe,    a,  hook  which  slips  betweeu  hoof  and 
shoe  to  fasten  weight ;  b,  brass  weight ;  c,  binding  screw  ;  d,  eyelets  for  straps. 

weights  to  the  feet,  which,  in  the  front  feet,  are  fastened  to 
the  toe,  in  the  hind,  to  the  outer  side.  These  are  of  brass  or 
lead,  somewhat  oval  in  shape  and  of  hemispherical  section, 
weighing  from  1^  to  6  ounces.  Sometimes  they  are  even  used 
in  racing.  In  front  slioes  they  are  usually  fastened  by  screws 
to  a  prolongation  rising  from  the  toe  (fig.  228). 

In  the  case  of  hind-feet  the  weight  is  fixed  in  one  of  two 
ways,  the  more  common  being  by  nieans  of  a  strap  (fig.  230,  e) 
passed  round  the  hoof.  In  order  to  assure  solid  attachment 
of  the  weiglit  a  hook  (a)  projects  below,  fitting  into  an  opening 
between  the  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof  and  the  shoe.  The 
second  method  is  by  means  of  an  angled  strip  of  brass,  affixed 
by  two  screws  to  the  lower  outer  surface  of  the  wall,  which 
has  been  excavated  for  it  (fig.  231).  The  ordinary  weighted 
shoes  are  made  broader  opposite  tlie  point  where  the  extra 
weight  is  required  (tigs.  232  and   233).      Sucli  weights  play  an 


234 


THE   PKACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


important  part  in  training  trotters.  Their  use  depends  on  the 
experience  that  many  animals,  even  with  good  action,  go  better 
in  front  with  a  moderately  weighty  shoe.  American  trainers 
consider  that  the  toe-weight  prevents  the  animal  wasting  its 


Fig.  231. — Weights  seen  from  front  and  side,     a,  iron  carrier  fastened  l>y  means  of 
screw  a'  to  the  lower  border  of  wall ;  b,  weight;  c,  binding  screw. 

strength  in  upward  action,  thus  driving  the  toe  deeply  into 
the  ground,  and  leads  to  the  limb  being  further  advanced. 
The  improvement  is  stated  to  be  from  two  to  five  seconds  per 
English  mile.      Such   weights  are,  however,  still  more  useful 


Fig.  232. — American  toe-weighted  shoe. 


Fig.  233.— American  qnarter-weighted  shoe. 


for  horses  with  defective  action  ;  animals,  for  example,,  which 
go  too  close  behind  usually  improve  in  a  surprisingly  short 
time  when  provided  with  weights  on  the  outer  surface  of  the 
hoof. 


TEOTTEES. 


Fig,  234. — Partially  fullered  fore  shoe  (for  trotters). 
Made  from  |.  x  ^  incli  iron. 


To  face  p.  235.] 


FOKE   SHOE    FOK   TRfiTTIXG    HORSE.  235 


PAirriALLY  FULLEEEJ)  FOEE  SHOE  (FOE 
TEOTTEES)  (Fig.  234). 

Made  from  -J-  X  |-  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  another  form  of  the  trotting  shoe  before  ilhis- 
trated.  It  is  said  to  cause  the  horse  to  increase. the  length  of 
his  stride ;  but  owing  to  its  not  being  used  in  this  country,  the 
authors  are  unable  to  offer  any  opinion  as  to  its  efficacy. 

The  piece  of  iron  welded  to  the  toe  in  place  of  a  clip  is 
tapped  with  a  thread ;  the  toe-weight  is  of  bell-metal,  and  has 
a  hole  drilled  through  to  allow  the  insertion  of  an  iron  rod  for 
screwino-  the  wei^fht  home. 


236 


THE   PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


5.  CAEEIAGE   HOKSES. 

The  carriage  horse,  being  heavier,  having  larger  feet  and 
wearing  harder  than  the  saddle  horse,  requires  a  stouter  shoe 
and  more  cover,  especially  at  the  toe  of  the  hind-foot.  For 
front  feet  a  very  common  form  of  shoe  is  that  shown  in  fig. 
235.  The  fuller  is  deep  and  extends  from  heel  to  heel ;  there 
are  from  five  to  seven  nail   holes,  depending  on  the  size  of 


Fig.  235.— Fullered  front  shoe  for  carriapre  horse.     Grouiul  surface. 


the  shoe,  the  last  of  which  should  not  be  placed  behind  the 
centre  of  the  outer  quarter ;  at  the  toe  the  cover  is  ample  and 
diminishes  progressively  towards  the  heels,  which  should  bevel 
off  from  above  downwards  and  forwards  and  should  not  extend 
more  than  ^  to  |  inches  beyond  the  wall  of  the  heel.  The  clip 
is  at  the  centre  of  the  toe ;  occasionally  it  is  omitted. 

The  foot  surface  presents  a  horizontal  margin  of  sufficient 
width  to  cover  the  wall  and  a  narrow  rim  of  the  sole ;  the 
seating  is  wide  at  the  toe  and  diminishes  in  width  as  it 
approaches  the  heels,  J  to  1  inch  in  front  of  which  it 
terminates. 

Machine-made  shoes  of  the  Eodway  pattern  (fig.  240)  are 
largely  employed  for  carriage  horses,  for  which  they  are  very 
suitable.     While  giving  sufficient  cover  and  an  excellent  foot- 


GUIDING   PRINCIPLES   IN   SHOEING   CARRIAGE   HORSES.         237 

hold,  they  are  comparatively  light,  and,  as  now  made,  durable 
enough  for  most  purposes.  In  Scotland,  a  similar  shoe  is  still 
made  by  hand,  the  double  fullering  being  produced  with  a 
special  crease.  In  England,  the  machine-made  Eodway  shoe 
has  almost  entirely  superseded  the  hand-made. 

Concave  shoes  are  useful  for  horses  which  forge,  and  can 
also  be  applied  to  animals  having  strong  feet  and  well-arched 
soles  which  are  required  to  present  a  specially  smart  appearance. 
In  the  hand-made  pattern  the  dishing  of  the  ground  surface 
occasionally  ceases  an  inch  or  less  in  front  of  the  heel,  but  the 


Fig.  236. — Fullered  front  shoe  for  carriage  horse.    Foot  surface. 

machine-made  shoe,  being  fashioned  from  rolled  bar,  is  necessarily 
dished  throughout.  The  foot  surface  is  perfectly  flat,  i.e., 
without  seating,  though  it  is  well  to  slightly  round  the  extreme 
inner  edge  next  the  sole. 

*  Tips'  are  referred  to  on  page  256. 

A  number  of  useful  machine-made  carriage-horse  shoes  are 
now  on  the  market.  For  the  smaller  class  of  animals  with 
strong  feet  and  well-developed  soles,  the  light  shoe  of  Charlier 
steel  is  useful,  as  it  allows  the  frog  to  come  to  the  ground  and 
ensures  a  good  foothold.  It  is  also  of  value  in  preventing 
cutting,  too  frequently  a  consequence  of  heavy  or  ill-fitting 
shoes  which  tire  the  animal.  The  application  of  this  shoe  is 
nevertheless  restricted ;  its  narrowness  concentrates  almost  all 
the  weight  on  the  wall,  into  which  it  sinks,  while  it  affords  no 
protection  to  the  heels.  Further,  its  lightness  is  opposed  to 
durability  and  unfits  it  for  really  hard-worked  horses. 

The  Eodway  shoe  has  already  been  mentioned.  Shoes  made 
of  corrugated  or  pattern  iron  give  an  excellent  foothold,  but 
can  only  be  used  on  strong  feet,  as  the  position  of  the  nail  holes 
cannot  be  so  carefully  selected  as  in  other  shoes  and  fitting  is 


238 


THE   PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


more  clifiicult.  Such  shoes  are  also  more  liable  to  break  than 
those  of  ordinary  pattern,  and  have  never  come  into  very 
extended  nse. 

The  machine-made  fullered  fore  shoe  presents  no  essential 
difference  from  the  hand-made  shoe  above  described.  The 
manufacturers  now  supply  hand-made  shoes  of  this  pattern 
which  have  the  advantage  of  lasting  somewhat  longer,  and  of 
permitting  a  clip  to  be  drawn  with  greater  ease,  than  the 
machine-made    article.       They  also   make   similar  shoes  with 


Fig.  237. — Concave  fore  shoe  for  carriage  liorse.    Ground  surface.    (The  bars     - 
appear  somewhat  too  pronunent  owing  to  the  preparation  of  the  foot.) 

inside  feather-edge  for  horses  which  cut  and  brush.  These 
will  be  more  particularly  referred  to  under  the  head  of 
'  Cutting  and  Brushing.' 

Unlike  those  of  the  hack,  the  carriage  horse's  hind  shoes 
are  generally  provided  with  calkins  of  equal  height,  the 
inner  being  somewhat  less  wide  and  rounded  on  the  margin 
facing  the  opposite  hoof.  Sometimes  the  inner  calkin  is 
replaced  by  a  wedge  or  knocked-up  heel,  though  this  is  undesir- 
able unless  the  animal  goes  very  close  or  rests  one  hind-foot  on 
the  coronet  of  the  other  in  the  stable.  Two  calkins  give  a 
much  better  foothold.  The  shoe  most  commonly  used  has  a 
calkin  outside  and  wedge  heel  inside. 

For  carriage  horses  with  good  action  the  ordinary  shoe  has 
two  calkins  of  equal  height,  the  inner  slightly  smaller  than  the 


CALKINS   V.   WEDGE-HEELS    FOR   CAEKIAGE   HORSES.  239 

■outer,  seven  nail  holes,  which  extend  back  considerably  beyond 
the  centre  of  the  quarter  and  are  sunk  in  a  deep  fuller,  and  a 
broad,  solid,  and  therefore  durable  toe.  The  cover  is  approxi- 
mately equal  throughout.  The  inner  heel  is  well  rounded  off. 
There  is  usually  a  clip  at  the  toe.  This  has  the  advantage  over 
clips  on  either  side  of  the  toe  of  allowing  the  inner  branch  of 
the  shoe  to  be  fitted  very  close,  and  of  still  further  avoiding 
the  risk  of  cutting.  As  the  pace  is  much  slower  than  that  of 
the  hunter,  there  is  less  danger  of  overreach,  and  rounding  the 
toe,  giving  two  side  toe-clips,  and  setting  back  the  shoe  are 
unnecessary.  To  give  additional  security,  an  outside  quarter- 
clip  may  be  added. 

The  foot  surface  is  perfectly  fiat  and  broadest  at  the  toe, 
becoming  gradually  narrower  as  it  aj)proaches  the  heels.  The 
inner  branch  of  the  shoe  is  sliohtlv  narrower  than  the  outer. 

Wedge  heels  are  used  to  increase  wear  and  diminish  the 
danger  of  '  treading '  the  coronet  when  the  horse  is  in  the 
stable.  There  is  little  real  difference  between  the  shoe  with  two 
wedo'e  heels  and  that  with  an  inner  wedge  heel  and  an  outer 
calkin,  though,  as  the  calkin  gives  a  somewhat  better  foothold 
than  the  wedge  heel,  the  latter  shoe  is  preferred  by  many. 

With  the  object  of  preventing  injury,  many  horses  are  shod 
with  a  '  feather-edge '  inside.  The  shoe  is  then  nailed  around 
the  outside  and  at  the  toe,  and  may  carry  a  toe  and  outside 
quarter-clip.  The  '  feather-edge '  should  be  of  the  same  height 
as  the  outer  calkin  and  be  bevelled  away  from  above  down- 
wards and  well  rounded  off.  This  kind  of  shoe  is  always  '  set 
under '  a  trifle  and  the  horn  of  the  quarter  and  inside  of  toe 
rasped  away  so  as  to  leave  no  sharp  edge  capable  of  inflicting 
injury.  As  the  nails  are  disadvantageously  placed,  the  plain 
stamped  shoe  (which  gives  more  support  to  the  individual  nails 
and  can  be  more  easily,  and  more  ,perf ectly,  fitted)  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  the  fullered  shoe.  The  feather-edged  stamped  shoe 
has  one  great  mechanical  disadvantage :  the  inner  border  form- 
ing a  plane,  polished  surface  gives  practically  no  grip  on  the 
ground,  the  calkin  then  forms  the  only  holding  portion  of  the 
shoe  and  there  is  a  constant  tendency  for  the  foot  to  rotate 
round  this  as  around  a  fixed  point.  Although  competent 
authorities  deny  that  any  evil  results  in  practice,  it  seems 
to  us  that  the  use  of  such  shoes,  at  least  on  wood  and  asphalt 


240  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

pavements,  must  expose  the  limb  to  severe  and  unnecessary 
strains. 

It  has  been  found  that  many  horses,  which  *  cut '  when  shod 
with  any  form  of  preventing  shoe,  go  perfectly  well  with  a  flat 
shoe,  of  which  the  inside  branch  is  bevelled  from  above  down- 
wards. A  well-developed  frog  is  almost  indispensable,  however, 
when  this  shoe  is  used,  in  order  to  secure  foothold,  though  the 
difficulty  may  be  partly  overcome  by  the  employment  of  india- 
rubber  pads. 

It  is  scarcely  needful  to  say  that,  for  horses  which  cut,  the 
use  of  hind  shoes  with  a  calkin  and  a  flat  heel  lower  than  the 
calkin,  though  common,  throws  a  great  strain  on  the  articula- 
tions, and  should  only  be  resorted  to  when  all  other  methods 
have  failed. 


CARRIAGE     HORSES. 


Fio.  238. — Fullered  fore  shoe  (seated  and  tapped  for  screws).     Made  from 


1  X  I  inch  iron. 


Fig.  239. — Ground  surface  of  above  shoe. 


To  face  p.  241.] 


SHOEING   CARRIAGE   HORSES    THAT   SLIP.  241 


SPECIAL  SHOES  FOE  CAREIAGE  HORSES. 


iTLLEKED  FOEE  SHOE,  SEATED  AND  TAPPED 
FOE  SCKEWS   (Figs.  238,  239). 

Made  from  1  X  ^  incli  iron. 

Shoes  when  tapped  and  screwed  have  a  wide  range  of  use- 
fulness. Though  primarily  intended  to  check  slipping  on 
frozen  streets,  screwed  shoes  are  now  frequently  used  all  the 
year  round  in  London,  sometimes  in  conjunction  with  india- 
rubber  pads,  for  the  purpose  of  assuring  a  firm  foothold  on 
asphalt,  wood,  etc.  Even  show  horses  are  sometimes  shod  with 
them  if  the  showyards  have  become  hard  from  prolonged 
drought.      The  screw  at  toe  of  shoe  is  useful  in  hilly  country. 

The  fulleiins:  of  the  shoe  should  not  extend  round  the  toe 
nor  right  up  to  the  heels  ;  half-an-inch  being  left  solid  in 
which  to  punch  the  screw  hole  prior  to  tapping. 

The  spikes  or  blanks  can  be  removed  when  the  horse  is 
resting,  corks  being  inserted  in  the  screw  holes  to  exclude 
grit.  As  the  edge  of  the  holes  becomes  '  burred  over,'  how- 
ever, even  with  this  precaution,  a  plug-tap  is  needed  to  clear 
them  before  reinserting  the  screws.  A  common  plan  is  to  use 
very  low  blanks  when  the  horse  is  not  at  work.  This  preserves 
the  screw  holes.  To  prevent  one  foot  injuring  the  coronet, 
etc.,  of  the  opposite  foot  when  the  horse  is  turning,  the  inner 
heels  are  often  provided  with  blanks,  the  sharps  being  reserved 
for  the  outer  heels. 


Q 


242  THE    PRACTICE    OF   SHOEING. 


'  EODWAY '  FORE   SHOE  (Fig.   240). 
Made  from  -g^  X  ^  inch  rolled  ^pattern'  iron. 

This  shoe  is  made  from  '  Rod  way  '  iron  by  hand.  It  is 
very  largely  used  in  London  to  minimise  slipping  on  bad  roads, 
for  which  purpose  its  use  may  be  conjoined  with  that  of  india- 
rubber  pads  or  screws.  In  the  country  it  is  scarcely  durable 
enough,  and  its  continued  use  on  any  but  the  strongest  feet  is 
apt  to  be  followed  by  injury,  in  consequence  of  the  need  for 
frequent  renewal. 

It  has  many  important  advantages  for  town  work  :  it  aftbrds 
a  fair  amount  of  cover ;  its  thinness  allows  of  the  frog  coming 
to  the  ground ;  its  lightness  lessens  the  chance  of  the  horse 
cutting  or  striking,  while  its  double  grooves  give  an  excellent 
grip  of  the  ground.  In  light  work  it  wears  from  three  to  four 
weeks,  a  sufficient  time  to  permit  the  necessary  growth  of  the 
hoof.  Some  care  is  required  in  heating  and  turning  the  special 
iron,  to  prevent  the  regularity  of  the  grooves  being  destroyed, 
especially  at  the  toe.  The  iron  should  only  be  red  hot,  and 
should  be  '  pulled '  round  on  the  beak  iron  rather  than 
hammered. 


THIN  HEELED  FULLERED  SEATED  FORE  SHOE 

(Fig.  241). 

Made  from  1  X  -|  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  suitable  for  animals  wdth  thrush,  weak  or  wiry 
heels,  bent  knees,  navicular  disease,  and  in  some  cases  for 
'  corn '  and  separation  at  the  heels.  It  may  also  be  used  for 
upright  boxy  feet,  with  a  tendency  to  contraction  ;  but  in  this 
case  the  heels  of  the  foot  must  be  well  lowered  before  applying 
the  shoe. 

In  some  cases  it  is  an  advantage  to  '  cradle '  the  shoe,  i.e., 
to  thin  both  toe  and  heels,  leaving  the  quarters  of  the  full 
thickness  of  iron,  and  thus  giving  a  rocking  motion  to  the  foot 
during  progression. 


C  A  E  E  I  A  G  E     H  0  E  S  E  S. 


Fig.  240.  — '  Rod  way '  fore  shoe.     Made  from  |  x  |  inch  rolled  ''  pattern  "  iron. 


Fig.  241. — Tliin  heeled  fullered  seated  fore  shoe.     jNlade  from  1  x  g  inch  iron. 


{To  face  p.  242. 


CAKEIAGE    HOKSES. 


Fig.  242.— Fullered  fore  shoe  (dished  on  ground  surface).     Made  from 

1  X  i  inch  iron. 


To  face,  p.  243.] 


SHOEING  CARRIAGE  HORSES  THAT  FORGE.        243 


FULLERED  FORE  SHOE  (DISHED   ON  GROUND 

SURFACE)  (Fig.  242). 


Made  from  1  X  -J-  inch  iron. 

Young  horses,  when  first  broken  to  harness,  are  apt  to  forge. 
For  such  as  contract  this  habit,  but  have  weak,  spreading  feet, 
to  which  narrow-webbed  shoes  would  be  inappKcable,  the 
present  shoe  is  indicated.  It  is  also  useful  for  hunters  exer- 
cised on  roads,  and  for  riding  and  driving  horses.  Its  '  cover ' 
and  flat  foot  surface  cause  the  pressure  due  to  the  animal's 
body-weight  to  be  distributed  over  a  wide  surface  of  the  foot, 
extending,  in  fact,  towards  the  centre  of  the  foot  beyond  the 
white  line. 

Should  the  foot  be  very  '  fleshy '  and  the  sole  thin,  the 
inside  edge  of  the  foot  surface  of  shoe  may  require  to  be 
slightly  rounded  off  or  '  eased,'  to  prevent  undue  pressure  at 
this  point.  Where  the  shoe  is  used  for  hunters,  the  heels 
must  be  sloped  away  obliquely,  and  the  shoe  fitted  close  at  the 
heels  to  prevent  its  being  trodden  off. 


244  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 


6.  OMNIBUS  HORSES. 

Until  very  recently  most  omnibus  horses  were  shod  in  front 
with  a  plain  stamped  shoe,  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  but 
broader  at  the  toe  and  outer  quarter,  where  the  chief  wear  falls, 
than  at  other  points.  To  avoid  unduly  loading  the  toe,  the 
increased  breadth  is  chiefly  secured  by  increased  seating  out. 
The  ordinary  shoe  has  seven  nail  holes,  four  outside  and  three 
inside  ;  the  last  outside  nail  hole  is  placed  at  about  the  centre  of 
the  quarter.  We  believe  that  of  late  years  the  London  General 
Omnibus  Company  has  adopted  a  machine-made  fullered  front 
shoe,  which  has  been  found  easy  to  fit  and  apply,  and  the  use 
of  which  is  steadily  extending.  Machine-made  shoes  are  less 
durable  than  hand-made,  however,  and  most  private  shoeing 
firms  continue  the  use  of  hand-made  stamped  shoes  for  'bus 
horses,  especially  for  hard  wear. 

The  hind  shoe  is  of  good  breadth  and  thickness  at  the  toe 
and  outer  quartei-  where  wear  is  usually  severe.  To  secure 
durability,  many  hind  shoes  are  made  from  '  old  stuff,'  one  and 
a  half  or  tw^o  shoes  produciug  a  new  shoe,  or  a  piece  of  steel  is 
welded  into  the  toe.  The  inner  branch  of  the  shoe  is  slightly 
narrower  than  the  outer,  and  usually  terminates  in  a  wedge 
heel  to  lessen  the  danger  of  '  treading '  the  opposite  coronet. 
For  horses  that  cut,  the  inner  branch  of  the  shoe  bears  one  or 
two  nail  holes  close  to  the  toe-clip,  is  fashioned  rather  straight 
from  the  back  of  the  toe  as  far  as  the  last  part  of  the  quarter, 
and  fitted  very  fine. 

The  horses  of  the  Compagnie  Generale  des  Omnibus  de  Paris 
are  shod  with  steel  shoes  of  a  much  lighter  pattern  than  is 
usual  in  England.  Both  fore  and  hind  shoes  are  thick  at  the 
toe  and  become  thinner  towards  the  heels.  Each  has  six  nail 
holes  distributed  at  equal  distances  around  the  toe  and  is  avail- 
able for  either  a  right  or  left  foot.  The  system  is  said  to  work 
very  satisfactorily,  but  we  cannot  help  thinking  trouble  must 
arise  in  the  shoeing  of  diseased  or  weak  feet. 


0  ]\1  X  I  r>  U  S    HO  R  S  E  s. 


Fig.  243.— stamped  hind  shoe  (for  omnibus  work),  with  two  calkins. 

Made  ft'om  old  shoes. 


Fig.  244.— Stamped  hind  shoe  (for  omnibus  work),  with  calkin  and 


wedge  heel.      Made  from  old  shoes. 


To  face  p.  24 'i.] 


SHOEING   OMNIBUS    HOKSES   THAT   WEAK   AT   TOE.  245 


SPECIAL  SHOES  FOB,  OMNIBUS  WORK. 


STAMPED  HIND  SHOE  (for  Omnibus  Wokk),  WITH 
TWO  CALKINS  (Fig.  243), 

Made  from  old  shoes. 

The  toe  being  the  seat  of  greatest  wear  iu  by  far  the 
majority  of  cases,  this  omnibus  hind  shoe  should  have  a  thick- 
ness at  that  point  of  |-  inch.  To  give  the  necessary  durabil- 
ity in  cases  where  wear  is  exceptionally  severe  (in  '  toe-biters,' 
as  the  working  farrier  terms  them),  a  piece  of  steel  may  be 
welded  into  the  toe.  When  the  horse  dra^s  the  toe,  a  short, 
thick  toe-clip  is  drawn,  in  which  the  steel  is  worked  round. 
This  protects  the  point  of  greatest  wear. 

Clips  can  be  drawn  at  the  toe,  the  toe  and  outside  quarter, 
or  at  the  outside  and  inside  quarters  :  the  latter  arrangement 
is  of  service  when  it  is  difficult  to  keep  shoes  on. 

The  shoe  shown  is  for  feet  varying  from  5^  to  ^)\  inches  in 
width. 

Since  the  wide  adoption  of  foot  brakes  on  omnibuses,  many 
horses  in  this  service  are  shod  with  flat  shoes  behind.  Many 
persons  still  prefer  calkins,  however,  as  giving  horses  a  better 
foothold  when  descending  hills  and  turning  corners. 


STAMPED  HIND  SHOE  (fok  Omnibus  Wokk),  WITH 
CALKIN  AND  WEDGE  HEEL  (Fig.  244). 

Made,  from  old  sJioes. 

This  shoe  only  differs  from   the  preceding  in  having  a  wedge 
heel  inside  in  place  of  a  calkin.      The  wedge  heel  is  greatly  to 


246  THE   PRACTICE   OF  SHOEING. 

be  preferred  when  a  horse  is  in  the  habit  of  resting  the  heel 
of  the  hind  shoe  on  the  coronet  of  the  opposite  foot  while  in 
the  stable,  or  when  an  animal,  in  consequence  of  skin  irritation, 
scratches  its  hind-legs  with  the  heels  of  the  shoes.  In  such 
eases  the  wedge  heel  can  be  cut  off  obliquely,  leaving  a  sloping 
surface,  much  less  likely  to  inflict  dangerous  wounds  than  is 
the  square-sided  calkin. 

The  size  and  thickness  of  the  shoe  are  similar  to  those  of 
that  preceding. 


STAMPED  FOKE  SHOE   FOE  OMNIBUS  WORK 

(Fig.  245). 

Made  from  1  X  -|  inch  iron. 

This  is  the  shoe  commonly  used  in  London  for  omnibus 
work,  though  machine-made  fullered  shoes  are  also  largely 
employed.  It  should  be  fitted  quite  full  at  the  quarters,  and 
well  '  boxed  up '  to  the  foot,  i.e.,  the  upper  outer  edge  should 
be  rasped  round  so  as  to  present  a  slanting  surface  about  -^^  inch 
in  breadth  extending  round  the  outer  and  upper  margin  of  the 
shoe.  This  minimises  risk  of  the  shoe  being  torn  off.  The 
heels  should  be  fitted  fairly  long,  care  being  taken,  however, 
that  they  are  not  so  prolonged  as  to  endanger  the  shoe  being 
trodden  off. 

The  foot  surface  of  this  shoe  is  seated. 


OMNIBUS     HORSES. 


Fig.  245.  — Staiujied  fore  shoe  (for  omnil)u>;  work).      Made  from 

1  X  finch  iron. 


I  To  facf  p.  246. 


PROPORTIONS  OV   CART  HORSE  SHOES.  247 


7.  CART  HORSES. 

Owing  to  the  position  assumed  in  hauling  heavy  weights,  the 
cart  horse  wears  most  heavily  at  the  toe  and  outer  quarter. 
These  points  must,  therefore,  be  strengthened  to  the  utmost 
without  unduly  increasing  weight,  whilst  the  less  worn  parts 
must  be  of  a  strength  corresponding  to  the  degree  of  attrition. 
A  careful  examination  of  the  old  shoe  will  soon  show  what 
parts  require  to  be  strengthened. 

The  front  shoe  is  generally  of  equal  thickness  throughout. 
The  cover  is  [greatest  at  the  toe  and  diminishes  towards  the 
heels.  There  are  seven  to  eight  nail  holes,  those  on  the  outer 
rather  more  widely  spaced  than  those  on  the  inner  side.  To 
increase  the  soliditv  and  wear  of  the  shoe  nail  holes  are  some- 
times  omitted  from  the  parts  where  friction  is  greatest.  The 
toe-clip  is,  if  anything,  somewhat  towards  the  outer  side  of  the 
toe. 

The  hoof  surface  presents  a  plain  rim  sufficiently  wide  to 
cover  the  wall  and  about  ^  of  an  inch  of  the  outer  margin  of 
the  sole.  The  seating  terminates  1  to  1^  inches  from  the  heel, 
which  is  well  rounded  and  which  sliould  project  -^  to  f  of  an 
inch  beyond  tliat  of  the  foot  when  the  shoe  is  affixed.  Although 
in  London  the  front  shoe  is  usually  flat  it  is  customary  in  many 
parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  Newcastle,  Liverpool,  and 
Scotland,  and  on  the  continent,  to  raise  the  heels  by  the  use  of 
low  calkins  or,  short  of  this,  to  considerably  increase  the  thick- 
ness of  the  heel  itself.  This  will  be  referred  to  in  the  succeed- 
ing pages. 

The  hind  shoe  is  thickest  and  broadest  at  the  toe ;  the  inner 
branch  is  narrower  than  the  outer,  is  fitted  close  to  the  foot, 
and  the  inside  nail  holes  extend  back  to  a  less  distance  than 
the  outer ;  there  are  two  calkins  of  equal  height,  the  inner 
somewhat  narrower  than  the  outer,  and  two  clips,  one  at  the 
toe  and  one  at  the  outer  quarter.  The  calkins  should  not 
much  exceed  in  lieioht  double  the  thickness  of  the  shoe  at  the 
quarter.  Horses  which  '  tread '  the  opposite  coronet  may  be 
shod  with  an  inside  wedge  heel.  Calkins  favour  the  muscular 
action  of  the  limb  and  greatly  assist  the  animal  in  descending 
hills.      To  help  the  animal  in  starting,  Fader  suggested  placing 


248  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

the  calkins  much  further  forward  than  usual.  The  upper 
surface  of  the  shoe  is  perfectly  flat  and  only  the  inner  margin 
is  slightly  rounded  off.  Cart  horses  seldom  overreach  or  cut 
in  their  ordinary  work,  so  that  no  special  precautions  are 
needed  on  this  account. 

The  Scotch  cart-horse  shoe  is  usually  straighter  in  the 
branches  than  the  English  shoe,  the  calkins  are  broader  from 
side  to  side  but  not  so  long,  and  the  quarters  are  fullered. 

Shunting  horses,  employed  for  moving  railway  trucks,  should 
be  shod  very  close  and  sliort  and  the  heels  of  their  shoes  bevelled 
to  prevent  the  shoes  becoming  fixed  in  points  or  sleepers ; 
calkins  are  absolutely  contra-indicated. 

Pit  ponies  require  similar  precautions. 


CAET    HOESES. 


Fig.  246. — Cartjhorse  hind  shoe  for  town  work,     Made  from  okl  shoes. 


To  faceup.  249.] 


CART    HOKSE   SHOES    FOR    T(JWN   WORK.  249 


SPECIAL  SHOES  FOR  CART  HORSES 


CART  HOKSE  HIND  SHOE  FOK  TOWN  WOIIK 

(Fig.  246). 

Made  from  old  shoes. 

Being  made  from  'old  stuff  this  shoe  is  more  durable  than 
if  made  from  new  iron.  It  has  a  thickness  at  the  toe  of  |-  inch. 
The  clip  is  drawn  at  the  toe,  or  at  toe  and  outside  quarter. 
The  calkins  should  be  square,  short  and  strong,  not  higher  in 
fact  than  is  necessary  to  ensure  a  secure  foothold.  Calkins  are 
of  considerable  importance  to  the  town  cart  horse,  because,  as  a 
rule,  the  strain  of  checking  the  load  on  inclines  falls  entirely  on 
the  horse,  foot-brakes  being  fitted  only  to  certain  of  the  four- 
wheeled  vehicles  and  to  few  of  the  two-wheeled.  Further- 
more, they  are  almost  indispensable  to  the  animal  in  backing  a 
load. 

The  shoe  illustrated  is  for  feet  of  6  to  7  inches  in  width. 

Though  less  durable,  cart  horse  hind  shoes  can  be  made  from 
new  iron.     A  useful  size  is  1^  x  -|  inches. 

Front  shoes  made  from  1^  X  |^  inch  iron  should  be  fitted 
rather  long,  very  full  at  heels  and  well  '  boxed  up.'  They 
usually  require  an  outside  quarter  clip  to  prevent  their  being 
driven  across  the  foot. 


250  THE    PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


CAKT  HORSE  STAMPED   FORE  SHOE  FOE 
SHOW  PURPOSES  (Fig.  247). 

Made  from  1 J  X  ;J  inch  iron. 

To  give  an  appearance  of  strength  to  defective,  weak,  or 
shelly  feet,  and  to  im[)rove  the  appearance  of  fairly  good  feet, 
the  shoe  is  made  '  boxed  np '  (as  it  is  termed)  '  the  wrong  way 
on.'  In  less  technical  language,  the  outer  w^all  of  the  shoe  is 
given  such  a  bevel  that  when  the  shoe  is  nailed  on  it  appears 
as  a  continuation  of  the  wall  of  the  foot ;  or,  the  circumference 
of  the  shoe  is  greater  at  the  ground  than  at  the  foot  surface. 
This  makes  the  foot,  when  lifted  for  inspection,  appear  wider. 

This  shoe  is  unsuited  for  ordinary  work  on  account  of  its 
favouring  cutting,  especially  when  somewhat  worn ;  the  inner 
ground  edge  then  '  burrs  over,'  forming  a  sharp  saw-like  margin, 
and  may  inflict  ugly  wounds  on  the  opposite  coronet  or  fetlock. 

Owing  to  its  shape,  the  nail  holes  must  be  so  stamped  as  to 
appear  very  '  coarse '  when  viewed  from  the  ground  surface. 
Vide  illustration. 


CART  HORSE  STAMPED  HIND  SHOE  FOR 
SHOW  PURPOSES  (Fig.  248). 

Made  from  1^  x  ^  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  made  and  used  in  precisely  the  same  way  and 
for  the  same  purpose  as  the  foregoing.  The  heels  may  be  level, 
as  shown,  or  wedged,  according  to  whether  it  is  desired  to  give 
a  natural  bearing  or  to  raise  the  heels. 


iaSS^pa^'ilii^J^'^^^^'^^^^ 


H 
Q 


[To  face  p.  250. 


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o 


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To  face -p.  251.] 


CART   HORSE    SHOES   FOR    WORK    ON   GRANITE   '  SETTS.'       251 

'NOETH  COUNTEY'  STAMPED  FOEE  SHOE 

CFiG.  249). 

Made  from  1^-  X  ^  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  has  strong  low  calkins  and  a  long  toe-piece 
welded  or  *  shut-on '  across  the  toe  ;  the  toe-piece  extends  about 
-|  inch  on  either  side  of  the  toe.  It  is  used  throughout  the 
North ;  in  fact,  wherever  steep  inclines  paved  with  granite 
'  setts '  are  to  be  found.  The  toe-piece  drops  into  the  interval 
between  two  rows  of  stones  and  gives  a  firm  foothold  for 
starting^  a  load,  while  the  calkins  enable  the  horse  to  hold  back 
his  load  in  coming  down  hill  and  assist  him  greatly  when 
backing.  The  toe-piece  and  calkins  beiog  of  equal  height  do 
not  disturb  the  natural  level  of  the  foot,  though  they  necessarily 
lift  the  frofr  from  the  ground. 

The  shoe  {vide  illustration)  is  well  seated  out  to  prevent 
pressure  on  a  weak  or  '  dropped  '  sole. 

'NOETH  COUNTEY'  STAMPED  HIND  SHOE 

(Fig.  250). 

Made  from  1^  x  ^  inch  iron. 

This  is  the  hind  shoe  corresponding  to  that  just  described 
and  is  similarly  fitted.  With  regard  to  the  toe-piece,  a  few 
words  may  be  said  as  to  the  process  of  welding  or  '  shutting-on.' 
The  shoe  must  be  finished  and  the  clip  drawn  preparatory  to 
welding.  A  light  rod  of  iron  having  been  selected,  the  end  is 
drawn  down  so  as  to  form  the  intended  toe-piece  and  the  part 
half  cut  through  but  not  detached,  as  the  bar  is  intended  to 
form  a  handle  for  manipulating  the  toe-piece.  The  toe-piece 
and  shoe  are  then  heated  together  to-  a  white  (welding)  heat, 
care  being  taken  to  keep  both  free  from  dirt  and  not  to  melt 
the  clip  from  off  the  shoe ;  (this  may  easily  happen  if  the  clip 
is  allowed  to  come  in  the  direct  line  of  the  blast).  The  toe- 
piece  and  bar  should  be  so  hot  as  to  '  sizzle  '  when  withdrawn 
from  the  fire.  The  toe-piece  is  adjusted  in  position  on  the  shoe, 
and  with  one  or  two  liglit  blows  is  welded.  Some  farriers 
stamp  a  hole  in  the  shoe  and  draw  out  a  tang  on  the  toe-piece 
with  which  to  fasten  the  two  together  before  heating.  The 
first  described  is,  however,  the  most  workman-like  method. 


252  THE   PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 


STAMPED  FOEE  SHOE  FOE  FAKM  WOEK 

(Fig.  251). 

Made  from  1^  or  1^  X  ^  inch  iron. 

As  the  amount  of  wear  at  farm  work  is  comparatively  light, 
the  above  section  of  iron  is  found  quite  sufficient  for  horses 
with  feet  up  to  7  inches  in  width.  The  shoe  is  slightly  seated 
and  has  (S  nail  holes,  and  is  fitted  rather  full  at  the  heels.  The 
heels  of  the  shoe,  however,  must  be  kept  shorter  than  is  usual 
for  town  work,  as  there  is  a  greater  chance  of  the  shoe  being 
torn  or  trodden  off  in  heavy  ground.  Marked  seating-out  is 
also  to  be  avoided,  as  it  increases  the  suction  experienced  under 
similar  circumstances.  A  toe-clip  is  usually  sufficient  except 
when  the  outside  heel  is  very  wiry,  in  which  case  three  nail 
holes  fairly  close  together  should  be  punched  at  the  outside 
toe  and  a  quarter  clip  drawn  just  behind  the  last.  The  shoe 
should  be  fitted  wider  than  usual  at  the  outside  heel.  In  ex- 
ceptional cases  it  may  even  be  necessary  to  punch  5  nail  holes 
inside. 


STAMPED  HIND  SHOE  FOE  FAEM  WOEK 

(Fig.  252). 

Made  from  1-|;  x  ^  inch  iron. 

On  account  of  its  having  no  calkins,  this  shoe  is  often  termed 
the  '  farmer  s  flat.'  The  absence  of  calkins  is  in  every  way 
an  advantage,  because  farm  horses  seldom  have  loads  to  back, 
and  when  they  are  turned  out  to  grass  together  there  is  less 
chance  of  their  injuring  one  another  by  kicking.  The  thinness 
of  the  shoe  allows  of  its  being  bent  cold,  a  point  of  considerable 
importance  when  it  is  remembered  that  farm  horses  are  often 
shod  at  the  stable. 

To  lessen  the  chance  of  nails  breaking  in  animals  which 
stamp  or  kick  in  the  stable,  an  outside  quarter  clip  or  even 
outside  and  inside  quarter  clips  may   be   fitted. 


CART    HORSES. 


Fig.  251. — Stamped  fore  slioe  (for  farm  -work). 
1^  or  1^  X  h  inch  iron. 


^[ade  Ironi 


Fio.  252. 


Stanijtcd  liind  shoe  (for  farm  work). 
1]-  X  ^  inch  iron. 


Made  from 

[To  face  p.  252. 


CART    HORSES. 


•NiJL> 


Fia.  253. — Staiui)ed  fore  shoe  (for  railway  shunting  horses). 
]\[ade  from  H  x  |  inch  iron. 


Fig.  2^>4.  —Stamped  hind  shoe  (for  railway  shunting  horses). 


Made  from  li  x  |  inch  iron. 


To  face  p.  2.53.] 


CART   HORSE    SHOES    FOR    FARM   AND   SHUNTING    WORK.       253 


STAMPED  FOKE  SHOE  FOE  KAILAVAY   SHUNTING 

HOESES   (Fig.  253). 

Made  from  I2"  X  |^  inch  iron. 

There  being  a  great  risk  of  shunting  horses'  shoes  catching 
in  sleepers,  rails,  '  points,'  etc.,  or  of  their  being  torn  off  by  the 
hind-feet,  special  precautions  are  required  in  making  and  fitting 
them.  The  heels  must  be  fitted  very  closely  to  those  of  the 
foot  and  be  sloped  off  very  obliquely  on  the  ground  surface. 
With  a  special  view  to  prevent  the  heels  of  the  shoe  catching 
in  '  points,'  it  might  be  of  advantage  to  form  the  quarters  and 
heels  slightly  concave.  Shunting  horses  being  much  exposed 
to  the  risk  of  '  picking-up  '  nails  whilst  working  in  railway 
yards,  it  is  generally  advisable  to  shoe  them  with  leather  soles 
as  a  protection. 

The  shoe  shown  is  suitable  for  foot  6  to  7  inches  wide. 


STAMPED  HIND  SHOE  FOE  EAILAVAY  SHUNTING 

(Fig.  254). 

Made  from  l|-  X  |^  inch  iron. 

For  reasons  stated  above,  calkins  or  wedge  heels  are  inadmis- 
sible on  the  hind  shoes  of  shunting  horses.  The  heels  of  the 
shoe  are  rounded  and  sloped  off  obliquely  on  the  ground  surface 
and  are  fitted  very  short,  closely  following  the  contour  of  the 
foot. 

The  above  shoe  is  suitable  for  feet  6  to  7  inches  wide. 


254  THE  PKACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

The  following  systems   of   shoeing  exhibit  special    features, 
which  lead  us  to  consider  them  separately : — 


8.  THE  CHARLIER  SHOE. 

In  or  about  1854  Messrs  Mavor  of  London  and  Duluc  of 
Bordeaux  suggested  the  use  of  comparatively  narrow,  thick 
shoes  to  prevent  slipping  on  greasy  pavements.  Mavor  directed 
his  shoe,  which  was  without  fullering,  to  be  fitted  warm  and 
in  such  a  way  as  to  be  slightly  incrusted  in  the  foot. 

In  1865  Charlier  introduced  a  system,  in  which  a  narrow, 
deep  band  of  iron,  without  fullering,  was  sunk  in  a  groove 
encirclinsj  the  entire  ground  surface  of  the  hoof.  To  secure 
frog  and  sole  pressure  the  ground  surface  of  the  shoe  when 
applied  was  on  a  level  with  that  of  the  foot.  Charlier  claimed 
to  afford  the  necessary  protection  to  the  wall  without  in  any 
way  diminishing  the  natural  elasticity  of  the  foot  or  impeding 
its  expansion. 

The  Charlier  shoe  corresponds  exactly  in  shape  to  the  form 
of  the  hoof,  is  deeper  than  broad,  of  equal  thickness  throughout 
or  slightly  less  broad  in  the  inner  branch. 

The  hoof  surface  is  a  trifle  narrower  than  the  ground  surface  ; 
the  upper  and  inner  margin  is  rounded  off.  There  are  from 
six  to  eight  oval  nail  holes  punched  obliquely  so  as  to  obtain 
the  best  (possible)  hold  of  the  wall.  The  heels  are  rounded, 
of  the  same  length  as  those  of  the  hoof  and  inclined  to  corre- 
spond with  the  direction  of  the  wall. 

In  preparing  the  foot,  the  special  guarded  knife  shown  in 
fig.  257  is  used  to  form  the  groove  in  which  the  shoe  is  lodged. 
The  sole  and  frog  remain  untouched  save  when  partially  loose 
fragments  require  removal. 

As  stated,  Charlier  claimed  by  this  method  of  shoeing  to 
permit  expansion  of  the  foot,  to  restore  diseased  feet  to  their 
normal  shape,  to  favour  development  of  the  frog,  and  to  prevent 
or  cure  contraction  of  the  heels,  sandcrack,  corns,  etc. 

These  claims  have  in  large  measure  been  rejected,  and,  in 
point  of  fact,  the  Charlier  system  of  shoeing  has  of  late  years 
largely  gone  out  of  fashion  in  England.  There  are  several 
reasons  for  this.      The  deep  groove   cut    to  accommodate  the 


ADVANTAGES    AND   DRAWBACKS   OF   CHARLIEK   SYSTEM.        255 

shoe  weakens  the  imioii  between  sole  and  wall  and,  except  in 
specially  strong  feet,  approaches  dangerously  near  seiisitive 
structures.  In  this  connection  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
horn,  even  in  thick  layers,  is  a  yielding  substance  (so  that  the 
untouched  wall  will  gradually  be  affected  by  constantly 
maintained  pressure),  and  that,  though  a  considerable  thickness 
of  sound  horn  separates  the  shoe  from  the  nearest  vascular 
structure,  evil  results  inay  follow,  though  tardily. 

The  inventor  recognised  this  and  advised  that  the  groove  be 
not  sunk  beyond  the  point  to  which  the  sole  would  be  pared 
in  ordinary  shoeing.  Unfortunately,  with  so  shallow  a  groove 
the  frog  no  longer  comes  to  the  ground,  l^ecause,  on  account  of 
its  want  of  cover,  the  shoe  has  to  be  very  much  tliicker  than 
the  ordinary  form.  And  this  raising  of  the  whole  foot  is  ill- 
compensated  by  the  increased  thickness  of  the  sole,  etc., 
especially  w^hen  compared  with  modern  shoeing,  in  which  the 
sole  is  spared  and  therefore  retains  all  its  strength. 

Again,  if  the  heels  of  the  shoe  be  sunk  deeper  into  the  hoof 
in  order  to  preserve  frog  pressure,  an  increased  load  is  thrown 
on  the  tendons,,  with  undesirable  results. 

In  frosty  weather  the  horse  shod  witli  Cliarlier  shoes  slips 
badly ;  not  so  badly,  perhaps,  as  the  horse  with  ordinary  shoes, 
but  infinitelv  more  than  one  with  coq;s  or  screws  or  even  rough 
heels.  And  the  Charlier  svstem  admits  of  no  effective  rou^h- 
ing,  so  on  this  score  it  certainly  has  no  advantage. 

When  tirst  introduced  a  great  deal  was  said  of  the  lightness 
of  the  Charlier  shoe.  Xow,  though  very  narrow,  this  shoe  is 
necessarily  made  very  deep,  and  therefore  heavy,  not  only  to 
resist  wear  but  to  prevent  it  opening  under  the  weight  of  the 
body,  because,  weight  for  weight,  a  broad  thin  shoe  offers 
infinitely  greater  resistance  to  this  spreading  movement  than  a 
narrow  deep  shoe.  The  increase  in  depth  is  so  considerable 
that  for  .small  feet  the  Charlier  shoe  has  little  advantage  over 
the  ordinary  form.  In  large  feet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  a 
marked  advantage. 

As  the  shoe  surrounds  the  foot  like  a  ring,  one  of  two  things 
must  occur  when  the  animal  is  in  fast  work :  either  the  shoe 
must  totally  prevent  expansion  of  the  heels,  or  the  force  of 
expansion  must  be  so  great  as  to  drive  the  heels  of  the  shoe 
asunder.      We   believe  it  is  the   pain  caused  by  this  constant 


256  THE   PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 

effort  of  the  foot  to  expand,  and  the  equally  constant  constric- 
tion by  the  shoe,  wliich  is  largely  responsible  for  the  low,  shooting 
action  which  horses  thus  shod  soon  acquire.  Pain  is  greatest 
when  expansion  is  greatest.  Expansion  is  greatest  when  pressure 
on  the  posterior  parts  of  the  foot  is  greatest ;  pressure  on  these 
parts  is  greatest  when  the  foot  descends  most  nearly  perpen- 
dicularly to  the  ground,  hence  the  animal  avoids  raising  the 
foot  high  and  brings  it  to  the  ground  as  obliquely  as  possible. 

Preparing  the  foot,  fitting  and  nailing  on  are  delicate  opera- 
tions ;  the  shoe  is  ill-adapted  for  defective  or  diseased  feet,  wear 
is  comparatively  rapid ;  when  partly  worn,  the  shoe  is  liable  to 
spread,  and,  owing  to  complications,  the  system  is  more  costly 
than  ordinary  shoeing. 

We  do  not  deny  that  the  Charlier  system,  when  introduced, 
had  many  good  points ;  it  taught  the  farrier  to  spare  the  sole 
and  bars,  it  drew  attention  to  the  need  of  frog  pressure,  and  it 
showed  the  advantages  of  light  as  opposed  to"  heavy  shoes.  At 
the  present  day  it  is  still  useful  as  a  front  shoe  for  ponies  and 
hunters  with  small  narrow  feet,  for  animals  which  slip  on 
smooth  pavements,  and  for  those  with  commencing  contraction 
of  the  foot ;  but  to  the  reputation  of  a  panacea,  formerly 
awarded  it,  the   Charlier  system  has  forfeited  all  claim. 


9.  TIPS. 

The  tip  covers  the  toe  and  a  portion  of  the  quarters  and  only 
protects  the  anterior  half  of  the  hoof  against  wear.  There  are 
two  kinds ;  firstly,  the  ordinary  tip,  and  secondly,  the  modified 
or  Charlier  tip. 

The  advantages  of  this  method  of  shoeing  consist  in  the  light 
weight  of  the  shoe,  which  in  the  case  of  ordinary  tips  is  about 
five  to  seven  ounces  and  in  Charlier  four  to  seven  ounces ;  but 
principally  in  the  fact  that  the  posterior  half  of  the  hoof  comes 
directly  in  contact  with  the  ground,  giving  more  frog-pressure, 
diminishing  slipping,  moderating  the  shock  to  the  limb,  and 
favouring  circulation  in  the  hoof,  thus  producing  a  more  rapid 
growth  of  horn  and  increasing  the  strength  of  the  foot,  while 
allowing  of  the  freest  possible  expansion  and  contraction.  Tips 
are  very  useful  for  hunters  '  turned  up  rough.'      Nevertheless, 


tips;  their  form  and  application.  257 


they  have  certain  disadvantages.  Thus  they  are  not  sufficiently 
durable  and  do  not  protect  the  hoof  enough  for  hard  work. 
They  last,  as  a  rule,  from  ten  to  twenty  days,  but  this  is  scarcely 
enough  to  permit  sufficient  growth.  They  are  most  useful  for 
young  horses  in  light  work  in  which  the  foot,  when  viewed 
from  in  front,  is  of  normal  shape,  and  when  viewed  from  the 
side  does  not  appear  oblique.  They  are  more  useful  for  front 
than  for  hind  feet,  though  an  exception  may  be  made  when  the 
hoof,  faultless  in  form,  is  provided  with  a  strong  wall  and  the 
horn  is  of  good  quality. 

(1)  The  ordinary  tip  has  a  breadth  at  the  toe  of  from  ^  to 
^  inch,  and  a  thickness  of  |-  inch.  Towards  the  extremities, 
the  inner  angles  of  which  should  be  rounded  off",  it  becomes 
thinner.  The  extent  to  which  the  thickness  should  be 
diminished  posteriorly  depends  on  the  strength  of  the  horn  in 
the  foot  in  question.  In  weak  hoofs  the  ends  of  the  tip  should 
be  thin  and  fitted  full,  thouc^h  even  then  the  correct  relation 


Fig.  255.— Ordinary  tip.  Fig.  256.— Upright  hoof  shod  with  a  tip. 

between  the  position  of  the  hoof  and  that  of  the  fetlock  cannot 
always  be  attained.  In  strong  feet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
sufficient  if  the  extremities  are  left  ^  to  ^  inch  in  thickness. 
The  ground  surface  of  the  tip  requires  no  fuller  and  can  be 
dished  out.     As  a  rule  four  or  five  nail  holes  are  sufficient. 

This  method  of  shoeing  is  most  easily  carried  out  when  the 
feet  are  strong.  The  bearing  surface  of  the  wall  is  only 
lowered  in  the  usual  way  at  the  points  to  be  covered  by  the 
tip,  that  is,  the  toe  and  part  of  the  quarters.  The  ground 
surface  of  the  finished  tip,  which  is  to  some  extent  embedded 
in  the  anterior  half  of  the  hoof,  must  lie  in  the  same  plane  as 
the  ground  surface  of  the  heels.  Where  the  horn  is  very 
strong  and  the  anterior  half  of  the  hoof  requires  to  be  much 
lowered,  the  remaining  horn  in  the  posterior  half  may  project 


258 


THE   PRACTICE   OF  SHOEING. 


below  the  shoe.      In   such  case  it  should  be  reduced  to  a  level 
with  the  shoe  by  the  aid  of  the  rasp. 

When  shoeino-  weak  feet  the  first  and  chief  consideration  is 
the  form  of  the  foot  as  seen  from  the  side.  As  the  tip  is  not 
then  embedded,  it  is  apt  to  raise   the  toe  and  by  throwing  the 


Fig.  257.— Special  knife  with  stop  used  in  preparing  the  groove  for  Charlier  tips. 

hoof  out  of  line  with  the  axis  of  the  foot  to  injure  the  animal's 
action.  The  horse  is  liable  to  stumble  and  fall  or  to  go  lame, 
especially  when  ridden  on  hard  ground.  To  meet  peculiarities 
in  the  formation  of  the  limb,  the  form  of  the  hoof,  the  style  of 
the  tread  and  wear,  the  tip  may,  in  exceptional  cases,  require 
to  be  modified,  one  branch  to  be  longer  than  the  other,  or  both 
branches  to  be  lengthened. 

An  offspring  of  the  Charlier  shoe,  and  one  which  preserves 
many  of  its  best  features,  is  : — 

(2)  The  Charlier  tip,  which  consists  of  a  thin  half  shoe,  not 
exceeding  in  breadth  that   of  the  wall  into   which  it  is  sunk, 


Fig.  258.— Hoof  prepared  for  Charlier  tip.         Fig.  259.— Hoof  shod  with  Cliarlier  tip. 


usually  fullered  and  exhibiting  from  four  to  five  nail  holes. 
The  outer  margin  is  either  perpendicular  or  slightly  sloped  out- 
wards and  the  inner  upper  margin  well  rounded  off;  the  nail 
holes   are   punched  as   near   the   middle   as  possible  and  are 


CHARLIER   TIP.  259 

'pitched  in,'  otherwise  they  are  apt  to  split  the  wall.  The 
length  varies  somewhat,  though  perhaps  the  best  results  are 
obtained  when  the  ends  of  the  shoe  do  not  extend  further  than 
the  middle  of  the  quarter ;  sometimes  one  branch  extends  to  the 
heel,  the  other  stopping  short  at  the  middle  of  the  quarter 
(three-quarter  tip).  The  groove  for  the  tip  is  made  by  first 
rasping  away  the  edge  of  the  hoof  and  then  using  the  special 
Charlier  knife  (fig.  257).  It  is  very  important  to  obtain 
accurate  fitting. 

Should  a  Charlier  shoe  or  tip  be  lost,  lameness  readily  follows 
from  pressure  on  the  sole,  and  unless  the  hoof  be  exceptionally 
strong  it  becomes  very  difficult  to  affix  an  ordinary  shoe. 


Fig.  260.  — Stamped  fore  tip.     Made  from  5  x  §  inch  iron. 

The  Charlier  tip  is  most  useful  for  upright  '  blocky '  feet 
with  wired-in  heels  and  atrophied  frogs,  in  which  its  use  is  often 
followed  by  remarkable  improvement  in  a  comparatively  short 
time.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Charlier  shoe  its  use  demands 
much  care,  skill,  and  judgment. 

Tips  are  of  much  value  for  horses  turned  out  at  grass,  or 
doing  light  work.  They  permit  the  frog  to  come  to  the  ground, 
promote  greater  physiological  activity  of  the  horn-secretiug 
structures,  thus  increasing  the  growth  of  horn,  produce  a  large 
h,ealthy  frog,  often  cure  thrush,  and  when  contraction  of  the 
foot  is  taking  place  are  of  great  service.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  heels  should  be  well  lowered  before  applying  the  tip.  Tips, 
again,  are  useful  for  horses  worked  on  asphalt  and  wood  pave- 


260  THE    PRACTICE    OF    SHOEING. 

ment,  as  they  permit  the  frog  to  come  to  the  ground  and  check 
slipping. 

The  quarters  of  the  tip  must  be  fitted  '  full,'  otherwise 
the  foot  is  apt  to  suffer,  the  horn  s]_  reading  over  the  tip 
and  splitting  off.  The  tip  illustrated  is  broader  than  usual 
It  is  intended  for  a  rather  weak,  fleshy  foot,  with  thin 
quarters. 


10.  SIR  F.  FITZWYGRAM'8  SHOE. 

The  web  of  the  shoe  is  not  wider  than  the  weight  bearing 
surface  and  is  of  even  width  until  it  approaches  the  heel, 
where  the  inner  margin  exactly  follows  the  course  of  the  bars, 
on  which  it  rests.  The  ground  surface  of  the  shoe  is  dished 
evenly  from   without   inwards,  corresponding  in  shape  to   the 


Fig.  261. — Sir  F.  I'itzwygram's  shoe. 

concavity  of  the  sole.  There  are  five  nail  holes,  three  outside 
and  two  inside.  About  half  the  width  of  the  toe  is  thinned 
on  the  beak  of  the  anvil  and  rolled  upwards,  forming  a  kind  of 
broad  clip  extending  almost  from  the  beginning  of  the  inside 
quarter  to  a  corresponding  point  on  the  outside.  In  fitting, 
the  toe  of  the  foot  is  rounded  to  a  similar  extent. 


am   ¥.    FITZVVYGKAM'S   SHOE. 


261 


The  hoof  surface  of  the  shoe  is  perfectly  Hat. 

This  method  of  shoeing  is  not  absolutely  novel,  for  rounding 
of  the  toe  has  always  been  recognised  as  an  advantage  and 
forms  part  of  both  the  German  and  French  systems  of  shoeing. 
In  the  former  it  is  termed  '  Zehenrichtuug,'  and  in  the  latter 
*  Ajusture.'  It  is  only  in  the  degree  to  which  this  rolling  is 
carried  and  in  the  peculiar  dishing  of  the  ground  surface  of  the 
shoe  that  the  novelty  of  the  above  method  consists. 


¥iG.  2ti2.— Sir  F.  Fitzwygram's  shoe. 

For  strong,  fairly  healthy  feet,  for  high  blocky  feet  with  a 
tendency  to  contraction,  disease  of  the  frog  or  corns,  for  navicular 
disease,  and  for  hunters  '  stale '  in  their  action  and  liable  to 
stumble,  we  regard  the  Fitzwygram  shoe  as  excellent.  It  is 
somewhat  dithcult  to  make  and  fit,  however,  and  does  not  suit 
horses  with  tiat  or  '  dropped '  soles  or  those  with  large  spread- 
ing feet  and  thin  defective  crust. 


'       11.  THE  TURKISH  OR  ORIENTAL  SHOE 

Is  said  to  have  been  used  by  the  Arabs  since  the  year  622  a.d. 
It  consists  of  a  flat  plate  of  iron,  very  broad  at  the  toe  and 
narrowing  towards  the  heels  (which  are  welded  together)  in 
euch  a  way  as  to  enclose  a  round  or  triangular  space,  through 


262: 


THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 


which  access  may  be  had  to  the  frog.  The  shoe  (tig.  263)  with 
rounded  aperture  is  common  in  Turkey,  that  with  triangular 
aperture  in  Africa.  The  hoof  surface  is  wider  than  the  ground 
surface,  so  that  the  upper  outer  margin  slightly  overhangs  the 
lower.  There  are  six  to  eight  round  nail  holes  equally  spaced 
in  the  quarters,  but  none  at  the  toe.  The  shoe  is  fitted  cold, 
the  horn  being  allowed  to  project  a  trifle  beyond  the  shoe  at 
the  quarters,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  at  the  toe  ;  the  heels 
of  the  shoe  are  bent  upwards  so  as  to  protect  the  bulbs  of  the 


t'lG.  2G3. — Oriental  shoe. 


foot.  After  nailing  on,  the  hoof  is  trimmed  to  the  shoe  by 
means  of  a  large  knife.  The  nails  have  large  strong  heads  with 
lateral  projections,  the  object  of  which  is  to  give  increased  foot- 
hold. As  these  projections  meet  when  the  nails  are  driven 
home,  they  also  tend  to  mutually  support  each  other.  The 
neck  of  the  nail  is  round,  the  shank,  however,  square,  and  the 
point  tapering.  The  point  is  not  wrung  off  after  driving,  and 
there  are  no  clenches,  but  the  projecting  portion  is  formed  into 
a  spiral,  which  is  gently  beaten  flat  on  the  wall  of  the  hoof. 
As  the  iron  of  which  the  nails  are  composed  is  of  excellent 
quality,  this  method  permits  of  the  same  nail  being  used  more 
than  once. 

The  Oriental  shoe,  as  opposed  to  that  used  in  Europe,  takes 


ORIENTAL  SHOE  AND  SHOES  WITH  ROPE,  WOOD,  ETC.  INLAID. 


263 


a  bearing  over  a  large  portion  of  the  sole  and  is  not  bedded  on 
the  wall  alone.  The  nail  holes  not  being  countersunk,  the 
shoe  being  thin  and  the  nails  not  fitting  with  absolute  accuracy, 
a  certain  degree  of  expansion  is  possible.  Whether  the  excel- 
lence of  Arab  horses'  feet  be  due  to  Oriental  shoeing  is  largely 
open  to  question,  but  the  method  at  least  teaches  one  useful 
lesson,  viz.,  the  ability  of  the  sole  to  bear  weight  and,  under 
favourable  circumstances,  the  positive  advantage  of  imposing 
weight  upon  it. 


12.  SPECIAL  aROOVED  SHOES  WITH  ROPE 

INLAID. 

These  shoes  are  of  cast  Bessemer  steel,  and  present  on  the 
ground  surface  a  broad  deep  channel  filled  with  a  piece  of 
tarred  rope  (fig.  264);   the  hoof  surface  resembles  that  of  an 


Fig.  2W. 

ordinary  seated  shoe.  The  rope  is  removed  before  fitting  and 
replaced  after  the  shoe  has  been  nailed  on.  The  advantages  of 
these  shoes  are  their  lightness  and  their  power  of  diminishing 
slipping  on  stone,  wood,  and  asphalt  pavements ;  they  do  not 
prevent  falls,  however,  in  wintry  weather.  To  some  extent  they 
diminish  shock. 

Owing  to  their  method  of  manufacture  they  will  not  bear 
heating  to  a  high  temperature,  nor  much  alteration  in  shape, 
and  therefore  are  only  of  value   for  sound,  well- formed   feet. 


264  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

They  are  widely  used  in  the  large  towns  of  Germany,  especially 
as  front  shoes. 

They  have  the  further  disadvantages  of  being  difficult  to 
nail  on  (the  nails  can  only  be  driven  home  by  means  of  a 
punch),  and  the  fact  that  the  thickness  of  the  shoe  prevents 
the  frog  touching  the  ground.  They  are  apt  to  crack  and 
readily  bend  when  half  worn  through,  to  prevent  whicli  they 
are  now  frequently  made  in  the  form  of  bar  shoes. 

Steel  bars  with  wood  inlaid  are  made  in  Copenhagen.  A 
groove  on  the  ground  surface  contains  a  firmly  compressed  ring 
of  wood.  They  are  exceedingly  light  and  correct  in  construc- 
tion, but  are  very  noisy,  and  as  they  cannot  be  warmed,  their 
use  is  confined  to  cases  where  they  exactly  fit  the  hoof. 

Shoes  with  rubber  inlaid  are  made  by  a  number  of  firms. 
In  certain  cases  the  shoe  is  cast,  in  others  it  is  rolled.  In  the 
latter  the  nails  are  driven  through  the  rubber  ;  in  the  former, 
however,  the  rubber  is  inserted  after  the  shoe  is  nailed  on. 
Eubber  is  neither  so  cheap  nor  so  lasting  as  rope. 


8.  Changing  from  one  Style  of  Shoein(j  to  Another. 

It  is  sometimes  found  desirable  to  vary  the  style  of  shoeing, 
a  horse  which  has  been  accustomed  to  flat  shoes,  for  instance, 
being  shod  with  tips,  or  with  calkins,  or  again  with  toe-pieces. 
In  making  such  cliange  it  is  of  great  importance  to  note  the 
way  in  whicli  the  foot  is  brought  to  the  ground,  and  the 
direction  of  its  axis.  Whatever  the  form  of  the  new  shoe, 
the  horse  should  tread  level.  Horses  working  on  hard  streets 
require  the  greatest  care  under  such  circumstances,  for  even  a 
slight  change,  if  continued,  may  seriously  injure  the  action. 
Throwing  the  horse  on  its  toe  seems  to  be  more  serious  than 
the  opposite  condition.  The  direction  of  the  foot  axis  is  of 
equal  importance  with  the  tread.  Where  the  foot  grows  rather 
oblique  (fig.  202),  as  happens  when  the  shoe  becomes  worn,  the 
animal  has  difficulty  both  in  standing  and  going  on  hard  ground, 
but  when  the  opposite  condition  occurs  this  difficulty  is  want- 
ing. It  is,  however,  best  to  always  seek  a  normal  tread  and  a 
normal  position  of  the  foot  axis. 


PKECAUnONS   REQUIRED   WHEN    CHANGING   STYLE   OF   SHOE.    265 

Bearing  this  in  mind,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  a  change  from 
shoes  with  calkins  to  those  without  may  be  injurious,  and  in 
fact  is  injurious,  if  the  toe  be  not  shortened  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  restore  the  foot  and  hoof  axes  to  their  normal  relationship. 
In  the  event  of  the  horn  being  too  weak  to  permit  of  thus 
lowering  the  toe,  the  shoes  sliould  at  least  be  somewhat  thicker 
at  the  heels. 

The  following  sometimes  occurs : — The  owner  of  a  horse 
shod  with  calkins  hears  of  the  advantages  of  Hat  shoes,  and 
without  further  notice  has  his  horse's  shoes  removed  and 
replaced  with  liat  shoes.  He  finds,  however,  the  horse  ,2^oes 
worse  than  formerly,  and  blames  flat  shoes  accordingly.  The 
cause  of  this  tied-in  gait,  and  the  tripping  and  stumbling,  is  to 
be  sought  in  the  low  heels.  Eemoval  of  the  calkins  has 
disturbed  the  relations  of  the  hoof  and  foot  axes,  and  has 
produced  another  kind  of  tread,  in  which  the  toe  comes  first  to 
the  ground.  Had  the  farrier  been  guided  by  the  conformation 
and  tread,  and  had  he  found  it  impossible  to  shorten  the  toe, 
owing  to  want  of  horn,  he  could  either  have  objected  to  the 
change,  or,  at  least,  selected  shoes  with  thick  heels,  which  would 
not  have  destroyed  the  balance. 


9.  The  Shape  and  Fitting  of  the  Shoe. 

Shaping  and  fitting  the  shoe,  like  preparing  the  hoof,  are 
most  important  parts  of  the  farrier's  duty.  Fitting  can  be 
performed  with  the  shoe  either  hot  or  cold.  In  this  work 
skill  and  the  ability  to  '  carry  the  form  in  his  eye '  are 
absolutely  necessary. 

Hot  fitting  has  the  advantage  of  allowing  faults  in  the  shoe 
to  be  rapidly  corrected,  as  well  as  producing  very  perfect 
•coaptation  between  shoe  and  foot  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 
A  hot  shoe  should  never  be  applied  to  the  hoof  for  more  than 
ten  to  thirty  seconds,  otherwise  serious  injury,  such  as  burning 
the  sole  and  causing  inflammation  of  sensitive  structures,  may 
be  done. 

Cold  fitting  certainly  avoids  these  disadvantages,  but  never 
produces  such  complete  contact  between  shoe  and  hoof,  nor  can 
the    peculiarities   of   the   hoof   or   of    the   gait   be   so   exactly 


266  THE    PUACTICE   OF   SHOEING.  :: 

compensated  for,  as  in  hot  fitting.  Nevertheless,  under  certain 
circumstances,  as  in  war,  etc.,  it  may  be  advantageous.  It  is 
impossible  to  give  detailed  directions  to  meet  all  circumstances. 
Flat  shoes  must  be  fitted  somewhat  differently  to  those  with 
calkins  and  toe-pieces,  and  variations  have  constantly  to  be 
made  to  meet  special  requirements. 

In  fittino'  the  shoe  it  should  be  brouoht  tr)  a  brii»ht  red 
heat.  If  irregularly  heated,  the  hammer  often  produces  dis- 
tortion in  other  parts  than  those  to  be  altered.  The  nearer 
either  limb  of  the  shoe  approaches  the  middle  line  of  the  hoof, 
the  greater  the  wear  on  it  and  the  greater  the  w^eight  thrown 
on  that  particular  half  of  the  hoof,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
bearing  surface  is  reduced.  The  converse  is  equally  true,  though 
the  results  of  all  such  peculiarities  are  more  marked  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  shoe.  The  same  principle  applies  both  to- 
the  toes  and  limbs  of' the  shoe.  Needless  to  say,  the  distances 
through  which  such  modifications  are  possible  can  be  measured 
only  in  sixteenths  of  an  inch.  It  is  always  necessary  to  keep' 
the  inner  limb  of  the  hind  slioe  comparatively  narrow,  and  the 
calkin  (if  present)  well  rounded  off,  both  to  avoid  the  shoe 
being  trodden  on  and  to  prevent  striking. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  it  is  an  advantage  and 
preserves  the  wall  to  provide  the  broadest  possible  bearing 
surface  between  the  shoe  and  the  hoof.  The  breadth  of  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  shoe  must  necessarily  correspond  to  that 
of  the  wall,  the  white  line,  and  the  narrow  rim  of  sole  before 
indicated.  In  fiat,  oblique  hoofs,  therefore,  with  oblique  walls, 
the  bearing  surface  must  be  broader  than  in  others. 

All  defects  on  the  bearing  surface,  in  the  nail  holes,  etc., 
must  be  removed  in  fitting,  clips  must  be  drawn,  and  the  shoes 
made  to  correspond  exactly  to  the  contour  of  the  foot.  The 
bearing  surface,  especially  at  the  back  of  the  shoe,  must  be 
absolutely  horizontal,  its  breadth  being  regulated  by  that  of 
the  hoof.  When  it  slopes  inwards  that  very  injurious  con- 
traction of  the  hoof  which  always  occurs  to  a  certain  extent  as 
a  result  of  shoeing  will  be  promoted.  In  the  region  of  the  nail 
holes,  on  the  contrary,  a  slight  slope  is  not  only  harmless,  but 
indeed  favourable.  Generally  speaking,  a  shoe  should  be  a 
plane,  so  that  if  laid  on  a  flat  surface  all  portions  of  its  hoof- 
bearing  margin  will  be  in  contact  with  it.     The  only  exceptions- 


FITTING    THE    SHOE   TO   FOOi" 


267 


are  shoes  with  a  rolled  toe  and  special  shoes,  such  as  those  for 
laminitis. 

Some  front  shoes  are  rounded  at  the  toe  (tig.  265) ;  as  a 
rule,  this  roundino-  off  should  commence  at  about  the  centre  of 
the  toe  and  be  carried  upwards  to  a  distance  equal  to  half  the 
thickness  of  the  iron.  This  corresponds  to  the  form  produced 
by  natural  wear,  and  is  said  to  facilitate  the  last  portion  of  the 
stride.  The  trutli  of  the  statement  is,  however,  somewhat 
donbtful.  At  the  best  the  toe  should  only  be  '  rolled '  when 
the  horse  wears  excessively  at  that  point.  A  rounded  toe, 
though  possibly  of  use  to  heavy  horses  in  slow  work,  prevents 
the  horse  obtaining  a  firm  '  grip '  of  the  ground,  is  awkward  to 
form  and  to  tit,  makes  it  difficult  to  produce  a  satisfactory  clip, 


Fig.  265. 


and  allowing,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  that  it  facilitates  turning 
and  other  movements  in  a  small  space,  certainly  decreases  the 
animal's  speed.  Those  who  claim  that  it  reproduces  the  form 
assumed  by  the  unshod  hoof,  forget  that  the  shoe  in  nowise 
reproduces  the  hoof,  and  that  the  bearing  of  the  unshod  hoof 
is  altogether  dift'erent  from  that  of  the  shoe. 

{a)  Fitting  Shoes  to  Normal  Feet. — After  selecting  the  shoe, 
giving  it  the  proper  form,  and  drawing  the  clips,  it  is  applied  to 
the  hoof  at  a  dull  red,  in  order  to  see  whether  it  fits.  Errors 
in  shape,  etc.,  are  then  corrected,  and  any  points  on  the  hoof 
which  have  been  left  too  high  are  lowered  by  rasping  away  the 
burnt  horn.  Provided  the  parts  have  been  correctly  trimmed 
and   the  shoe  holed,  the  depression   for  the   toe-clip  can  then 


268  THE   PRACTICE    OF   SHOEING. 

be  made,  though  only  sufficient  should  be  cut  away  to  enable 
the  clip  to  lie  close. 

The  shoe  fits,  (1)  when  its  outer  border  corresponds  with 
that  of  the  bearinsj  surface  of  the  wall  throuc^hout  the  toe  and 
quarters,  from  which  points  it  becomes  rather  wider  as  it  runs 
backward,  so  that  at  the  heels  it  projects  on  either  side  from 
^  to  ^  inch  ;  (2)  when  the  nail  holes  correspond  to  the 
white  line ;  and  (3)  when  it  lies  in  absolute  contact  with 
wall,  white  line,  and  a  narrow  zone  of  the  sole  as  wide  as  a 
straw. 

The  width  of  the  shoe  can  be  judged  best  by  grasping  the 
fetlock  with  the  left  hand,  allowing  the  hoof  to  fall  slightly, 
and  viewing  the  parts  from  above  and  behind. 

With  the  exception  of  the  narrow  zone  indicated,  a  space  of 
-|-  inch  should  exist  between  the  shoe  and  sole,  due  partly  to 
the  spring  of  the  sole,  partly  to  the  seating  of  the  shoe.  A 
narrow  space  should  also  separate  the  extremities  of  the  heels 
from  the  fro^. 

A  good  general  rule  is  to  fit  the  shoe  to  the  hoof,  but  in 
such  a  way  as  to  produce  the  best  possible  form  of  hoof. 
Faults  in  the  shoe  should  never  be  compensated  by  altering 
the  hoof.  In  dealing  with  hoofs  already  deformed  we  should 
seek  gradually  to  give  the  shoe  such  a  form  as  the  hoof  had 
when  healthy,  a  principle  derived  from  the  experience  that  the 
hoof  after  a  time  takes  the  form  of  the  shoe. 

As  soon  as  the  shoe  is  cool,  the  nail  holes  are  again  punched 
from  the  ground  surface  and  the  outer  border  of  the  shoe  is 
rasped  round.  This  rasping  gives  a  smart  appearance,  and 
removes  any  sharp  points  or  roughness.  To  prevent  cutting, 
the  edges  of  the  inner  side  of  the  shoe  should  receive  special 
attention.  In  filing  up  the  shoe  only  one  part  should  be 
grasped  in  the  jaws  of  the  vice  at  once,  or  otherwise  the  entire 
shoe  may  be  bent. 

(b)  Shoes  for  irregular  Conformations. — In  cases  where  the 
foot  or  limb  is  abnormal,  it,  is  no  longer  sufficient  to  fit  the 
shoe  to  the  hoof,  but  an  attempt  to  improve  the  position  of  the 
limb  must  be  made,  in  order  to  secure  proper  distribution  of 
weight  and  to  ensure  better  support ;  the  more  defective  the 
formation  the  more  necessary  does  this  become. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  hoof  of  a  turned-in  foot  ditlers  in 


MODIFICATIONS  OF  SHOE  FOR  IRKEGULAR  CONFORMATION,  ETC.    269 

shape  from  that  of  one  which  is  turned  out.  The  distribution 
of  weight  is  also  different,  and  some  change  in  the  width  of  the 
posterior  portion  of  the  limb  of  the  shoe,  therefore,  becomes 
necessary.  In  shoeing  turned-out  feet  the  inner  limb  of  the 
shoe  must  be  rather  wider  than  the  outer ;  in  turned-in  feet 
the  opposite.  How  much  cannot,  of  course,  be  exactly  stated  ; 
it  depends  on  the  amount  of  deformity,  and  on  whether  the 
shoe  is  flat  or  has  calkins  and  toe-grips.  In  well-marked  out- 
turned  toes  the  inner  part  of  the  toe  should  be  rather  flattened, 
allowing  even  the  wall  to  project  in  order  to  prevent  striking. 
In  turned-in  toes  the  shoe  is  fitted  so  that  the  inner  limb 
exactly  corresponds  to  the  inner  circumference  of  the  hoof,  the 
sharp  edge  of  which  should  be  rounded  off  rather  more  than 
usual.  At  the  same  time  the  outer  limb  from  the  toe  back- 
wards should  be  fairly  broad  (fig.  266). 

In  dealing  with  contracted  or  broken  feet  both  branches  of 
the  shoe  should  be  so  shaped  as  to  correspond  with  the  stronger 


Fig.  266. — Left  hind  shoe  for  horse  with  turned-iii  toes.    The  outer  bianch  is  seeii  to  be 
wider  than  the  inner.    The  dotted  lines  indicate  the  bearing  of  the  hoof. 

or  better  preserved  side  of  the  hoof.  The  shoe  will  then  project 
to  a  certain  extent  beyond  the  broken  or  contracted  wall.  It  is, 
of  course,  often  difticult  or  dangerous  to  allow  the  edge  of  the 
shoe  to  project  at  the  inside  of  the  toe  or  quarter,  but  there  is  no 
danger  in  giving  extra  width  at  the  heel,  because  the  horse 
seldom  or  never  cuts  with  this  part.  Should  the  shoe  he  fitted 
to  the  foot  in  such  cases,  the  weakened  portion  of  the  wall  sus- 
tains more  weight    than   it   would  were   it   sound  (so  that  a 


!270  THE   PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 

smaller  surface  has  to  carry  a  greater  load),  with  the  inevitable 
consequence  of  greatly  aggravating  any  existing  evil.  The 
guiding  principle  must  be  to  give  the  greatest  width  where  the 
greatest  weight  falls,  the  shoe  being  regarded  as  the  base  of 
support  and,  therefore,  requiring  to  be  a  little  broader  below 
that  portion  of  the  hoof  which  carries  the  greater  weight. 

(c)  The  Fitting  of  Shoes  for  Rapid  Work. — In  addition  to 
following  the  directions  laid  down  in  the  section  '  Choice  of  the 
Shoe,'  it  is  necessary,  in  shoeing  hacks,  coach  and  race  horses, 
which  work  at  a  trot  or  gallop,  to  tit  the  shoe  everywhere  as 
closely  as  possible.  It  should,  therefore,  represent  a  prolonga- 
tion of  the  horny  wall.  The  inner  limb  requires  particular 
attention,  and  must  lie  close,  with  its  upright  surface  inclined 
slightly  inwards.  To  prevent  the  shoe  cutting,  beiug  torn  off, 
or  catching  in  ol^stacles,  it  should  not  exceed  in  length  what  is 
absolutely  indispensable. 

(d)  Fitting  Shoes  for  Heavy  Draibght  Horses. — Heavy  draught 
horses  require  a  broad  bearing  surface  ;   consequently,  the  re- 
strictions as  to  width  and  length  of  the  shoe  are  less  imperative 
in  them  than  in  other  animals.     One  sometimes  sees  hoofs  which, 
without  being  diseased,  have  yet  sufi'ered  severely  in  previous 
shoeings.     The   heels  of  the   shoe  should   then   be   fashioned 
wider  than  the  hoof,  for  if  onlv  the  bare  width  is  allowed  the 
level  tread  will  be  destroyed,  especially  when  toe-pieces   and 
heels   are   employed.      Heavy  draught  not   only   shortens    the 
stride  but  tends  to  cause  turning  in  of  the  toes,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  outer  limb  of  the  shoe  is  generally  exposed  to 
heavy  wear  and  the  hoof  becomes  deformed.     To  diminish  this, 
to  favour  regular  wear  of   the  shoe,  and  to  give  better  support, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  fit  the  shoe  fuller  than  usual  on  one 
side,  especially  when  the  toe  is  turned  inwards,  or  it  may  even 
be   necessary   to    form   the   web   somewhat   broader  (fig.  266). 
The  extent  is  determined  by  the  degree  to  which  the  wall  has 
become  inclined,  but  on   the   outer  side   it   is   always  safe  to 
increase   the   width  of   the    shoe    until   its   outer   edge  comes 
vertically   below   the   coronary  margin.      If,   for  example,   the 
coronet  is  wider  at   the   outer  heel  (that  is,  greater  in  circum- 
ference) than  the  bearing  margin,  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe 
from  the  last  nail  hole  backwards  may  be  kept  so  wide  that  a 
perpendicular  line  let  fall  from  the  coronary  margin  will  meet 


FITTING   SHOES   FOR   HEAVY    DRAUGHT   HORSES.  271 

it  (tig.  267).  The  inner  web,  on  the  other  hand,  must  be  as 
narrow  as  possible.  The  new  shoe  sliould  be  broader  at  the 
point  where  the  old  shows  greatest  wear  and  may  also  be 
titted  fuller,  i.e.,  be  rather  more  bowed  outwards.  The  nail 
holes  should  be  correspondingly  coarser. 

This  obviates  the  need  for  bendinsr  outwards  the  outer  heel. 
The  width  of  the  web  must  depend  on  the  style  of  tread  and 
on  the  wear  of  the  old  shoe.  Sometimes  the  bearing  surface 
of  the  outer  heel  is  not  completely  covered  by  the  shoe  and  is 
then  apt  to  be  compressed.  The  remedy  is  to  widen  the  web. 
We  advise  the  adoption  of  a  perfectly  level,  that  is,  horizontal, 


Fig.  267. — Left  hind  shoe  for  horse  with  turned-in  toes  and  contraction  of  outer  quarter 
and  heel.    The  shoe  has  feather  edge  and  (a)  quarter-clip. 

bearinii  surface  for  contact  with  the  wall,  because  it  allows 
the  foot  to  expand  to  the  greatest  extent,  and  because 
experience  teaches  that  the  hoof  is  thus  best  conserved. 
Dominik  has  suggested  another  method,  which,  however,  in 
our  opinion  is  unpractical,  namely,  to  trim  the  bearing  surface 
at  rifjht  angles  to  the  c^eneral  direction  of  the  wall  and  mve 
the  shoe  a  corresponding  form.  The  upper  surface  of  the 
shoe,  therefore,  in  general  appears  concave,  shoes  for  flat 
hoofs  being  most  markedly  seated,  those  for  upright  hoofs 
less  so.     The  system,  however,  has  met  with  little  acceptance. 


272 


THE   PEACTICE    OF   SHOEING. 


10.  The  Nails. 

Of  late  years  great  progress  has  been  made  in  the  manu- 
facture of  horse  nails  by  machinery.  The  first  requisite 
for  making  a  good  nail  is  iron  of  the  best  quality.  In 
form,  the  nail  should  resemble  a  slender  wedge,  its  width 
being  twice  its  thickness. 

To  meet  the  requirements  of  everyday  work  ten  sizes  are 
required.  The  nail  should  never  be  thicker  or  longer  than  is 
absolutely  necessary,  and  more  than  one  size  is  often  required 


Fig.  268. 
Hand-made  nails. 


Fig.  269.  Fig.  270.  Fig.  271. 

Badly-=formed 
French  nails.  Machine-made    nail;  head  and 

nail.  shank  defective. 


in  the  same  hoof.  Every  nail  makes  a  hole,  and  the  smaller 
the  hole  the  better  for  the  hoof.  Although  it  is  indis- 
pensable to  secure  the  shoe  firmly  to  the  hoof,  this  does  not 
depend  on  the  use  of  large  nails  alone,  and  should  a  strong 
nail  split  the  w^all  it  becomes  less  secure  than  a  weak  nail  in  a 
sound  wall.  It  is  rare  that  the  loss  of  a  shoe  can  be  referred 
to  the  use  of  weak  nails.  Much  more  frequently  the  shoe 
does  not  fit  or  the  nail  holes  are  faulty  in  form,  direction,  or 
size. 

Hand-made  nails  require  preparation  to  enable  them  to 
penetrate  easily  and  in  the  proper  direction  through  the  horn 
wall.     This  preparation,  termed  '  pointing,'  can  only  be  satis- 


COKRECT   SHAPE,    ETC.,   OF    HORSE-NAILS.  273 

factorily  undertaken  after  ascertaining  the  form  and  condition 
of  the  wall.  The  nails  should  be  smooth  and  regularly  formed, 
but  should  never  be  hammered  more  than  is  absolutely 
necessary,  for,  cceteris  paribus,  the  softer  they  are  the  better. 
The  amount  of  hammering  they  should  receive  depends, 
therefore,  to  some  extent  on  the  hardness  of  the  wall. 

As  the  nail  is  required  to  take  a  straight  and  not  a  curved 
course  through  the  horn,  its  inner  side,  that  is,  the  part  turned 
towards  the  laminae,  should  be  somewhat  curved  outwards,  in 
order  to  provide  against  the  known  fact  that  straight  nails 
always  pass  in  a  curved  direction  through  the  wall,  and  then 
not  only  fail  to  remain  firm  but  are  very  liable  to  injure  the 
horn  and  even  the  soft  structures. 

The  point  is  finished  with  a  short  triangular  surface  obliquely 
inclined  to  the  general  direction  of  the  shank  (figs.  268  and 
270).  A  short  point  causes  the  nail  to  emerge  low  down  on 
the  wall,  whereas  an  oblique  point  results  in  it  taking  a  longer 
course  and  emerging  higher.  No  fixed  rule  can  be  given  in 
regard  to  the  niceties  of  pointing,  because  different  forms  of 
wall,  and  to  some  extent  nails  of  different  thickness,  require 
different  lengths  of  point. 

The  point,  however,  should  never  be  curved.  Its  outer  side 
must  invariably  be  straight,  and  the  point,  though  sharp,  must 
not  be  thin,  still  less  excessively  fine. 

At  the  present  time  machine-made  nails,  highly  polished 
and  ready  for  driving,  are  almost  exclusively  used.  Of  extreme 
regularity,  they  are  cheaper  and  more  easily  driven,  though 
less  tough  than  the  old-fasliioned  nail. 


11.  Nailing  on  the  Shoe. 

Before  affixing  the  shoe  the  farrier  places  it  once  more  in 
position  to  see  whether  it  fits  accurately  and  whether  it  is  in 
every  respect  suitable.  So  far  as  nailing  on  is  concerned,  the 
shoe  fits  when,  firstly,  all  the  nail  holes  correspond  in  position 
to  the  white  line,  and  secondly,  when  each  hole  has  been 
punched  with  due  regard  to  the  direction  of  the  correspond- 
ing part  of  the  wall.  Any  errors  must  be  corrected  before 
nailing  on  commences. 

s 


274  THE   PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 

N'ailing  on  is  intended  to  unite  the  shoe  witli  the  hoof 
hrmly  and  lastingly,  and  to  effect  this  with  the  least  possible 
injury  to  the  horn  and  without  wounding  or  pressing  on 
sensitive  structures.  As  each  nail,  on  account  of  its  wedge 
form,  tends  to  drive  the  shoe  towards  the  side  to  which  the 
point  is  directed,  the  latter  should  be  placed  as  nearly  as 
possible  in  the  centre  of  the  nail  hole  ;  lateral  displacement 
of  the  shoe  is  then  less  likely  to  occur,  and  after  driving  two 
or  more  nails  it  is  scarcely  possible,  the  horn  yielding  rather 
to  the  nail.  When  slight  displacement  has  occurred  after 
driving  the  lirst  nail,  it  can  be  remedied  by  attention  in 
inserting  that  of  the  opposite  side,  but  if  two  or  more  have 
been  driven,  or  displacement  is  considerable,  the  nails  should  be 
withdrawn  and  redriven. 

It  is  of  comparatively  little  moment  which  nail  is  first  driven, 
though,  as  a  rule,  one' or  other  of  the  toe  nails  is  selected  and 
the  nailing  on  continued  from  this  point. 

To  protect  the  wall  and  avoid  injuring  sensitive  parts,  nails 
should  be  driven  only  so  high  as  to  grasp  firm  horn.  For 
light  shoes  -J  to  1  inch  and  for  heavy  1^  to  1^-  is  sufficiently 
high,  measured  from  the  upper  margin  of  the  shoe.  Many 
farriers,  thinking  to  show  greater  skill  or  to  attain  greater 
security,  drive  all  nails  as  high  as  possible  without  reference 
to  the  style  of  hoof  or  shoe.  This  is  a  grave  error,  for,  quite 
apart  from  the  dangers  of  punctures  and  '  binding,'  the  hoof  is 
soon  penetrated  by  so  many  nail  tracks  that  in  time  it  becomes 
difhcLilt  to  discover  a  solid  part.  The  less  the  horn  has  been 
split  and  injured  by  numerous  thick  or  high  driven  nails,  the 
better  will  be  the  hold  of  a  well-fitted  shoe.  Special  skill  in 
the  farrier  is  shown  when  few  or  no  old  holes  can  be  found  in 
the  hoof. 

In  driving,  the  nail  is  held  as  long  as  possible  between  the 
fingers  to  ensure  its  taking  the  proper  line.  The  two  principal 
indications  are  furnished  by  what  the  Germans  term  the  Gang 
und  Klang^  that  is,  the  manner  in  which  the  nail  advances,  or 
rather  the  sensation  its  progress  imparts  to  the  workman's  hand 
and  the  sound  it  gives  forth.  Each  blow  should  be  sufficient 
to  drive  it  from  -f^  to  ^  inch  forward.  As  soon  as  the  sound 
becomes  clearer  and  the  nail  drives  with  more  difficulty,  the 
farrier  knows  that  the  point  of  the  nail  has  entered  the  outer 


NAILING   OX  THE   SHOE. 


275 


hard  sheath  of  the  wall,  and,  therefore,  is  in  the  proper 
direction.  A  moment  later  he  detects,  by  means  of  the  second 
and  third  fingers  of  his  left  hand,  which  rest  lightly  on  the 
wall,  the  point  at  which  the  nail  will  emerge,  when  he  releases 
his  hold  on  the  nail,  and  drives  it  fully  home.  The  force  to 
be  applied  depends  on  the  hardness  of  the  horn  and  the  size 
of  the  nail. 

Nails  which  penetrate  ^-  inch  and  still  go  '  soft,'  or  which 
cause  the  animal  to  flinch,  should  at  once  be  withdrawn.  Im- 
mediately the  nail  is  driven  home  its  point  should  be  turned 
over. 

It  looks  well,  and  is  a  mark  of  good  workmanship,  for  the 
nails  of  each  side  to  appear  at  an  equal  height  in  the  wall, 


Fig.  272.— Cross  section  of  a  sound  and  well-shod  hoof,  showing  the  position  of  the  nails. 
a,  pedal  bone ;  6,  sensitive  sole ;  c,  horny  sole  ;  d,  horn  wall ;  e,  dark-coloured  outer 
layer  of  do. ;  /,  laminal  sheath  ;  g,  nails. 


though  this  is  by  no  means  absolutely  necessary ;  certainly  it 
is  much  more  important  that  they  should  be  driven  so  as  not 
to  injure  the  hoof.  If  more  than  six  nails  are  driven  to  an 
equal  height,  injury  may  result,  as  the  nails  then  come  closer 
together. 

When  all  the  nails  have  been  driven  the  hoof  is  supported 
by  the  left  hand,  and  with  a  few  powerful  blows  the  heads  are 
sunk  securely  in  the  nail  holes.  The  shoe  is  thus  firmly  fixed 
to  the  hoof,  the  third  condition  mentioned  above.  The  nails 
being  firmly  driven,  the  pincers  are  held  under  the  turned-down 
points,  which  are  completely  bent  and  brought  in  close  contact 
with  the  hoof  by  light  blows  on  each  in  succession.  This  is 
done  not  to  cause  the  nails  to  hold  more  firmly  in  the  hoof,  but 
only  to  facilitate  nipping  off  the  points  and  clenching. 


276 


THE    PKACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


Each  nail  as  it  emerges  from  the  hoof  causes  the  outer 
sheath  of  the  wall  to  bulge  slightly,  and,  therefore,  in  order  to 
form  the  clench  the  point  of  the  nail  is  removed  close  to  the 
horn,  there  being  little  fear  of  its  proving  too  short.  As  far 
as  possible  twisting  or  other  movements  which  might  loosen 
the  nail  should  be  avoided. 

After  nipping  off  the  points  the  horn  below  the  exposed  part 
of  the  nail  is  lightly  rasped  to  form  a  groove,  the  end  of  the 
nail  being  either  left  of  full  strength  or  only  slightly  thinned. 
The  clenches  are  then  turned  down  with  a  few  lioht  blows  of 
the  hammer.  It  is  suliicient  if  the  '  turn  down '  of  the  clench 
is  the  same  depth  as  the  nail  is  broad,  or  in  other  words,  if  the 
part  of  the  clench  showing  is  square. 

Finally,  any  horn  projecting  beyond  the  edge  of  the  shoe  is 
rasped  away,  and  the  edge  of  the  hoof  slightly  rounded  off  by 
inserting  the  edge  of  the  rasp  between  the  lower  margin  of  the 


Fig.  273. 


hoof  and  the  upper  part  of  the  shoe,  though  if  the  fitting  be 
properly  performed  this  should  only  be  needful  at  the  inside  of 
the  toe.  Under  no  circumstances  should  that  part  of  a  sound 
hoof  above  the  clenches  be  rasped.  The  hoof  is  now  put  down, 
the  old  nail  holes  can  be  filled  with  wax  if  desired,  or,  as  is 
usual,  brushed  over  with  some  '  dressing,'  and  the  horse  walked 
and  trotted  to  see  how  he  goes. 

In  hoofs  injured  by  the  use  of  too  many  nails,  or  weak  in 
horn,  the  nail  holes  must,  of  course,  be  appropriately  distributed 
in  the  shoe,  so  as  to  take  advantage  of  the  soundest  parts. 
With  this  precaution,  and  by  employing  high  clips,  even  the 
worst  of  feet  can  generally  be  shod.     In  special  cases  '  bar ' 


FINISHING  OFF   THE   HOOF   AFTER   AFFIXING    SHOE.  277 

clips  (giving  a  hold  on  the  bar  as  opposed   to  the  quarter  or 
toe)  have  even  been  successfully  employed. 

Occasionally  a  nail  when  driven  may  splinter  or  break,  and 
portions  of  it  remain  in  the  hoof,  defying  all  efforts  at  extraction 
with  ordinary  pincers.  To  meet  such  special  cases  forceps  have 
been  invented  (fig.  273)  but  have  never  come  into  general  use. 
The  forceps  enable  the  portions  to  be  more  easily  grasped  and 
removed,  the  adjustable  screw  serving  as  a  pivot.  Similar 
forceps  might  be  of  value  to  veterinary  surgeons  in  certain 
operations. 


12.  Examination  of  the  Horse  affer  Shoeing. 

The  animal  is  first  walked  to  see  how  he  treads,  and  trotted 
to  see  whether  he  goes  lame.  Next  the  farrier  should  glance 
at  the  limbs  from  in  front  to  see  that  the  foot  axis  neither 
inclines  inw^ardly  nor  outwardly,  and  from  the  side  to  see 
whether  the  horn  of  the  wall  is  in  the  same  line  as  the  axis  of 
the  bones.  A  slight  uprightness  of  the  wall,  however,  is  not 
always  a  disadvantage.  The  heels  will  be  of  a  height  corre- 
sponding to  the  formation  of  the  hoof.  Next  he  notes  whether 
the  horn  of  the  wall  runs  in  a  straight  line  from  the  coronet 
to  the  bearing  surface.  The  straighter  all  portions  of  the  wall 
appear  the  better. 

At  the  same  time,  any  defect  in  form  and  position  of  the 
shoe  is  seen.  Above  each  nail  should  be  a  small  opening,  for 
this  shows  that  the  nail  has  been  turned  over  of  full  strength 
in  clenching.  The  clenches  should  be  situated  in  sound  horn, 
approximately  at  the  same  height,  equally  spaced,  and  sunk 
level  with  the  w^all.  The  clips  and  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  shoe  are  next  noted.  The  toe  of  the  hind  shoe  is 
broader  and  thicker  than  the  quarters.  The  clips  should  be 
of  equal  form  and  size,  and  their  length  and  width  proportioned 
to  the  form  of  the  hoof  and  to  the  weight  upon  it,  as  well  as 
to  the  work  required  of  the  horse.  The  clip  of  the  front  shoe 
should  be  in  the  centre  of  the  toe  ;  that  of  the  hind  a  trifle 
towards  the  inside.  When  (in  hind  shoes)  there  are  two 
quarter-clips,  each  should  be  at  the  same  distance  from  centre 
of  toe.      Finally,  each  foot  is  lifted  and  the  position  of  the 


278  THE   PKACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 

nail  holes  Doted.  The  form  of  the  shoe,  the  relations  of  the 
nail  heads  to  the  holes,  and  the  relation  of  the  shoe  to  the  sole 
and  frog  are  seen.  The  sole,  bars,  and  frog  should  be  strong, 
and  the  frog  should  project  sufficiently  to  touch  the  ground. 
The  shoe  should  take  a  level  Ijearing  throughout. 

In  front  shoes  the  nail  holes  should  be  distributed  chiefly  in 
the  anterior  half ;  in  hind  shoes,  on  the  otlier  hand,  they  may 
extend  as  far  as  the  posterior  third.  The  nail  heads  should 
fill  the  countersinks  and  should  either  not  project  at  all  beyond 
the  ground  surface  of  the  shoe  or  only  about  yV  of  an  inch. 
The  inner  and  under  margin  of  the  shoe  should  never  be  sharp 
nor  project  towards  the  middle  line,  i.e.,  towards  the  opposite 
limb.  The  inner  and  upper  margin  should  not  touch  the 
liorny  sole,  nor  should  the  lieels  lie  in  contact  with  the  frog. 

After  this  examination,  which  is  performed  very  rapidly,  all 
old  nail  holes  are  filled  with  wax  and,  if  not  seen  to  before, 
the  entire  hoof  and  sole  rubbed  over  with  hoof  '  dressing.' 


13.  Disadvantages  of  Shoeing. 

Shoeing  has  certain  innnediate  bad  results,  which  the  farrier 
must  be  acquainted  with,  in  order  to  be  able,  as  far  as  possible, 
to  minimise  them.  Many  farriers  and  owners  are  unaware  of 
how  these  are  produced,  and  are  satisfied  to  refer  them  to 
defects  in  form  and  length  of  the  shoe,  etc.,  in  accordance  with 
their  particular,  often  erroneous,  theories.  With  the  knowledge, 
however,  that  shoeing  completely  alters  the  relations  of  the  hoof 
to  the  ground,  in  fact  places  the  hoof  in  an  entirely  unnatural 
condition,  the  reasons  for  injury  are  more  easily  understood. 
The  body-weight  is  now  no  longer  supported  by  the  entire 
lower  surface  of  the  hoof  but  rests  almost  entirely  upon  the 
wall,  which  again  rests  upon  the  shoe. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  disadvantages.  (1)  The  sole 
and  frog  are  almost  entirely  relieved  from  the  counter-pressure 
of  the  ground ;  in  consequence  they  lose  their  function,  and  in 
common  with  the  posterior  parts  of  the  foot  tend  to  shrink. 
At  the  same  time,  an  excess  of  weight  is  thrown  on  the  wall, 
checking  its  growth,  exposing  it  to  severe  internal  strain,  and 
in  too  many  cases  leading  to  contraction  and  deformity. 


DISADVANTAGES    OF   SHOEING.  279 

{2)  The  hoof  grows  continuously.  When  shod,  however, 
wear  ceases — save,  perhaps,  in  the  posterior  sections,  where,  in 
consequence  of  elasticity,  a  slight  loss  occurs — and  the  hoof 
becomes  too  long  and  too  high.  This  alters  the  relation  of  the 
hoof  to  the  limb,  impedes  movement,  tires  the  animal,  favours 
stumbling  and  falling,  and  may  even  produce  disease  of  joints 
and  tendons. 

(3)  Shoeing  removes  the  hoof  from  direct  contact  with  the 
ground  and,  therefore,  from  the  moisture  it  would  otherwise 
receive.  The  horny  capsule  becomes  dry,  hard,  and  unyield- 
ing, it  tends  to  contract  and  to  press  on  the  contained  soft 
structures,  thus  cramping  action  and  even  producing  lameness. 

(4)  The  nail  tracks  weaken  the  hoof,  and  accidents,  leading 
to  serious  results,  may  follow  the  carelessness  or  want  of  skill 
in  workmen. 

All  these  results  occur  earlier  and  in  more  pronounced  form 
in  fore-feet,  because  these  bear  a   greater  proportion  of  weight 
and  are  more  exposed  to  the  drying  process.      Such  changes  do 
not  appear,  however,  with  like  rapidity  nor   to  a  similar  extent 
in  all  hoofs.     Experience  shows  that  when  animals  are  severely 
worked  the  limbs  often  suffer  far  more  tlian  the  hoofs  in  conse- 
quence of  shoeing.      The  dogma  that  of  100  lame  horses  90  are 
lame  in   the   feet  is  unsupported  by  statistics.      Between  the 
years  1879  and  1891  the  Veterinary  School  in  Dresden  received 
10,727   lame  horses.      Of  these  oooo,  that  is  31-07  per  cent., 
were  lame  in  the  feet,  but  as  lame  horses  sometimes  make  more 
than  one  visit    the    percentage  may  be  even  lower.      In   the 
Practical  School  of  Farriery  at  Dresden  in  1884  the  number  of 
well-marked  diseased  feet  noted  was   6"53  per  cent. ;   the  per- 
centage  of    horses   lame   in   the   feet   was   even   lower.      The 
statistics  of   the  Military  School  of  Farriery  in  Berlin  show 
that  between  1877  and   1880   the  percentage  was    40*06.      In 
London,    though     no     precise     statistics     are     available,     the 
number  of  horses  lame  in  the  feet  is  probably  not  higher  than 
30  to  40  per  cent.     The  diminution  in  cases  of  foot  lameness 
has  been  very  marked  since  the  introduction  of  wood  paving 
and  machine-made  nails.      Speaking  generally,  the  feet  which 
most   often   become   diseased   are   those  attached  to  limbs  of 
irregular   conformation,  lameness   being   due   not   so   inuch   to 
shoeing:  as  to  irrej^ular  distribution  of  weight. 


280  THE  PRACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 

With  regard  to  the  injurious  effects  of  shoeing  it  has  justly 
been  said,  "  Shoeing  is  an  evil  ichen  ill  practised." 

14.  Effects  upon  Hoofs  and  Limbs  produced  by  Work 
ON  Paved,  especially  Stone-Paved,  Streets. 

While  draught  is  facilitated  by  the  hard,  smooth  surface  of 
modern  streets,  concussion  and  slipping  are  increased,  and  are 
productive  of  very  serious  effects  in  the  feet  and  limbs  of  all 
draught  animals.  The  gain,  therefore,  of  very  smooth  hard 
pavements  is  somewhat  less  than  would  at  first  appear. 

So  far  as  the  preservation  of  the  hoofs  and  joints  is  concerned 
the  most  favourable  ground  is  that  which  admits  of  the  shoe 
entering  slightly,  thus  modifying  the  shocks  incidental  to  rapid 
movement  and  the  slipping  produced  when  the  foot  comes  to 
the  ground,  as  well  as  restoring  to  the  sole  and  frog  the  counter- 
pressure  necessary  for  healthy  growth.  A  soft  yielding  surface, 
in  which  the  hoof  sinks  deeply,  entails  great  exertion  and 
rapidly  produces  fatigue.  Very  hard  ground,  on  the  other 
hand,  causes  shocks,  slips,  and  falls  in  proportion  to  its  rough- 
ness and  hardness.  Granite  setts  and  asphalt  are  the  most 
injurious  of  all  pavements,  because  they  absolutely  prevent  the 
feet  impressing  them,  because  the  horny  sole  and  frog  become 
functionally  inactive  on  account  of  the  absence  of  counter- 
pressure,  and  because  the  sensitive  structures  and  joints  are  apt 
to  become  bruised  and  inflamed,  producing  a  peculiar  shuffling 
and  unsymmetrical  gait. 

While  granite  blocks  are  worse  than  macadam  or  gravel,  the 
evil  becomes  immensely  exaggerated  when  the  surface  is  much 
curved.  Streets  thus  paved  present  an  ever  increasing  danger 
for  horses,  a  danger  produced  by  the  hardness  and  smoothness 
of  the  surface  and  bv  the  faultv  or  diasjonal  setting  of  the 

t/  I/O  C7 

individual  stones.  Slips  and  falls  are  then  frequent,  as  owners 
in  large  towns  know  to  their  cost,  but  the  disease  processes 
produced  in  the  joints,  by  trotting  heavy  horses  on  granite 
paved  streets  of  excessive  curvature,  are  less  well  recognised. 
In  consequence  of  the  form  of  the  roadway  the  horse,  where- 
ever  he  happen  to  be,  almost  always  treads  unequally,  the 
outer  margin  of  the  right  hoof  and  the  inner  of  the  left 
coming  first  in  contact  with  the  ground.      This  inequality  of 


DISEASES   OF   FOOT   AND   LIMB   CONSEQUENT   ON   SHOEING.      281 

the  ground  not  only  causes  anxiety,  insecure  gait,  slipping,  and 
falling,  but  more  or  less  marked  compression,  if  not  contusion, 
of  the  articular  surfaces  of  that  side  on  which  the  hoof  first 
comes  in  contact  with  the  ground  ;  whilst  on  the  opposite  side 
strain  of  the  articular  ligaments  occurs.  When  we  think  how 
often  horses  suffer  in  their  gait  by  faulty  preparation  of  the 
feet  in  shoeing  when  going  on  perfectly  level  ground,  it  will 
be  clear  that  on  such  curved  surfaces  or  on  rough  hard  streets 
these  strains  in  and  about  the  joints  must  be  very  much 
greater. 

On  soft  ground  the  unequal  tread  is  of  little  or  no  import- 
ance, because  the  part  of  the  hoof  which  first  touches  the 
earth  buries  itself  to  a  corresponding  extent.  On  hard  streets, 
however,  the  accommodation  occurs  at  the  expense  of  the  joints. 
Faults  in  shoeing  have  often  been  blamed  for  the  excessive 
wear  of  horses'  legs,  but  the  foregoing  will  show  this  view  to 
be  in  large  measure  unjust. 


CHAPTER    III. 


FORGING  AND  CUTTING. 


1.    FORGINO. 


Forging    is    due    to    faulty  action,  in    consequence  of  which 
the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe  strikes  the  heel  or  under  surface  of 


Fig.  274. — Right  fore  shoe  with  rounded  inner  edge  (forging  shoe). 

the  fore  shoe.  In  most  cases  the  toe  of  the  front  shoe  is 
the  point  struck.  The  sound  is  very  unpleasant,  while  the 
action  itself  may  be  dangerous,  as  the  bulbs  or  sole  of  the  fore- 


FlG.  275.— Right  hind  shoe  with  two  lateral  toe-clips  (forging  shoe). 

foot  or  the  toe  wall  of  the  hind-foot  may  be  damaged,  the  shoes 
loosened,  or  the  front  shoe  become  locked  with  the  hind,  and 
the  animal  thrown  down. 

282 


REMEDIES    FOR    KOItCIXG.  283 

The  causes  are  either  faulty  conformation  or  defective  and 
careless  shoeing ;  some  animals  only  forge  when  tired  or  when 
])adly  driven.  Horses  which  '  stand  over/  i.e.,  whose  fore- 
limbs  incline  backwards,  and  whose  hind-limbs  are  placed 
too  far  under  the  body,  or,  in  other  words,  animals  with 
comparatively  short  bodies  and  long  limbs,  are  specially  pre- 
disposed. Bad  shoeing  is  often  the  cause,  the  fore  shoe  being 
unduly  long  and  the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe  too  prominent,  but 
in  most  cases  forgino;  is  caused  bv  the  toe  of  the  fore 
shoe  being  too  long  and  the  heels  too  low.  Such  a  shoe 
impedes  tlie  movement  of  the  fore-limb,  the  long  toe  delaying 
the  lifting  of  tlie  foot  from  the  sjround.  The  fore-foot,  there- 
fore,  remains  under  the  horse  too  long,  and  is  overtaken  by 
the  hind-foot. 

The  remedy  is  to  avoid  making  the  shoe  longer  or  wider 
than  the  hoof.  The  heels  of  Hat  shoes  should  also  be  bevelled 
off  obliquely  from  behind  forwards,  as  should  calkins,  if  used. 
When  the  horse  strikes  the  lower  surface  of  the  fore  shoe  at 
the  toe,  the  fault  can  often  be  prevented  by  rounding  off  or 
seating  ont  the  ground  surface. 

In  horses  that  forge,  the  front  shoe  should  be  formed  so  as 
to  represent  merely  a  prolongation  of  the  hoof. 

The  hind  slioe  should  be  shortened  at  the  toe,  and  llie 
lower  anterior  wall  well  rounded  off.  Quarter-clips  are 
preferable  to  a  toe-clip,  and  unless  the  horse  '  goes  on  his 
toe,'  the  shoe  must  be  fitted  so  that  three-quarters  of  the 
thickness  of  the  toe  wall  projects  in  front  of  the  shoe.  The 
nails  must  be  well  driven  home,  and  should  project  as  little 
as  possible.  The  sound  of  forging  can  sometimes  be  pre- 
vented by  inserting  a  fragment  of  leather  or  thick  rubber 
between  the  shoe  and  hoof  at  the  toe,  so  that  \  inch  projects. 
This  comes  in  contact  with  the  front  shoe,  and  prevents  the 
objectionable  noise. 

Charlier  shoes  in  front  are  often  a  complete  cure. 


284  FORGING   AND   CUTTING. 


SPECIAL  SHOES  FOE  HORSES  THAT  FORGE. 

FULLERED  HIND  SHOE  FOR  HARNESS  HORSE  WHICH 
FORGES    AND    WEARS    WALL     OF    HIND-FOOT 

(Fig.  276). 

Made  from  f  X  ^  inch  iron. 

Horses  that  forge  sometimes  wear  away  the  toe  of  the  hind- 
foot  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  owing  apparently  to  the  front 
of  toe  of  the  fore  foot  striking  that  of  the  hind  in  mid-air.  The 
point  worn  varies  in  position,  being  sometimes  low  down,  near 
the  shoe,  sometimes  close  to  the  coronet.  The  shoe  illustrated 
is  intended  to  prevent  wear  close  to  the  ground  surface.  A  long, 
broad,  stout  clip  is  drawn  (with  the  face  of  the  hammer),  which 
protects  the  point  of  impact.  The  heels  of  the  shoe  are  Hat  or 
may  be  slightly  thinned. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  '  forging '  is 
not  always  caused  in  one  way ;  sometimes  the  toe  of  the  hind- 
foot  strikes  the  inner  margin  of  the  fore  shoe,  sometimes  the 
toe  walls  of  the  fore-foot.  It  is  for  the  latter  condition  that 
this  shoe  is  intended. 


DIAMOND-TOED  FULLERED  HIND  SHOE  FOR 
HARNESS  HORSE  (Fig.  277). 

Made  from  J  X  ^  inch  iron. 

As  a  preventive  of  forging,  few  shoes  are  more  etiicient 
than  the  diamond-toed.  The  heels  of  the  shoe  are  thinned 
down  to  about  |-  of  an  inch.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general 
principle  that  (hind)  shoes  with  calkins,  as  compared  with  flat 
shoes,  and  flat  shoes  as  compared  with  thin  heeled  shoes,  favour 
forging.  Horse-dealers  often  object  to  this  shoe  as  drawing 
attention  to  a  defect,  and  it  may  then  be  replaced  by  a  shoe 


Fig.  276. — Fullered  liind  shoe  for  harness  horse  Avhich  forges  and  wears  wall 
of  hind  foot.     ]\Iade  from  S  x  i  inch  iron. 


■-^^^-v.. 


,<..'■""  ""■»■ 


Fig.  277. — Diamond-toed  fullered  hind  shoe  (for  harness  horse). 
Made  from  f  x  J  inch  iron. 


[To  face  p.  284. 


Fig.  278. — Diamond-toed  hind  shoe  witli  'toe  s])ui''  (for  harness  horse  which 
forges  and  wear.s  wall  of  hind  foot).     ]\Iade  from  old  shoes. 


To  face -p.  285.] 


SHOEING    HORSES   WHICH    FORGE.  285 

square  across  the  toe  and  clipped  on  either  side  of  the  toe, 
though  this  affords  no  protection  to  the  toe  of  foot,  which  often 
becomes  worn  away.  For  hard-working  horses  nothing  succeeds 
better  than  the  diamond-toed  shoe. 

Clips  may  be  drawn  at  the  toe  (the  apex  of  the  diamond),  at 
either  side  of  the  toe,  or  at  the  toe  and  outside  quarter. 

In  preparing  the  foot  the  horn  at  the  toe  must  be  spared  so 
that  it  overhangs  the  sides  of  the  toe  of  shoe.  Should  the  hind 
foot  still  overtake  the  fore,  it  is  then  the  horn  and  not  the  shoe 
which  makes  contact,  and  the  noise  is  materially  diminished. 
The  heels  of  the  foot  should  be  lowered,  the  toe  left  fairly 
long. 

To  enable  the  shoe  to  be  kept  as  light  as  possible  it  is  often 
fashioned  from  steel. 


DIAMOND-TOED  HIND  SHOE  WITH  '  TOE-SPUE '  FOR 
HAENESS  HOESE  WHICH  FOEGES  AND  WEAES 
WALL  OF  HIND-FOOT  (Fig.  278). 

Made  from  old  shoes. 

Occasionally  the  wall  of  the  hind-foot  is  worn  away  quite 
close  to  the  coronet,  as  explained  in  the  foregoing  note.  The 
sensitive  structures  may  even  be  exposed  and  bleeding  result. 
The  shoe  illustrated  is  intended  to  prevent  such  injury.  It 
consists  of  a  diamond-toed  shoe  with  an  upward  prolongation 
or  spur  accurately  fitted  to  the  contour  of  the  wall  at  the 
injured  spot. 

The  spur  is  made  from  half-round  iron  |^  inch  in  width,  and 
is  of  sufficient  length  to  reach  nearly  to  the  coronet.  It  is 
'  shut-on '  or  welded  to  the  shoe  when  the  latter  is  com- 
pleted. The  spur  must  be  very  carefully  shaped  to  the  wall, 
otherwise  it  increases  the  noise,  and  its  appearance  is  very 
unsightly. 

The  heels  of  the  shoe  should  always  be  thin.  Unless  for 
some   special   reason,  such  as  the  existence  of  sprain   of  the 


286  FOKGING   AND   CUTTING. 

subtarsal  ligament  or  of  the  liexor  tendons,  it  is  considered 
desirable,  by  giving  calkins,  to  relieve  the  tendinous  structures 
of  a  portion  of  their  load. 

A  light  concave  fore  shoe  should  be  used  in  conjunction  with 
the  '  spur '  shoe.  If  the  fore-feet  are  weak  or  fleshy,  and  a 
shoe  with  good  cover  is  indispensable,  it  sliould  be  dished  on 
the  c^round  surface. 


2.  Cutting  ok  Stuiking. 

A  horse  is  said  to  strike  or  cut  when  the  coronet,  fetlock, 
or  other  part  of  the  limb  is  touched  by  the  foot  of  the  opposite 
side  during  movement. 

A  graduated  series  of  injuries  is  recognised :  '  brushing,' 
when  the  hair  is  roudiened  or  soiled  with  mud ;  '  cuttinsj,'  or 
'  interfering,'  when  the  skin  is  cut  through,  and  bleeding 
ensues ;  '  striking,'  or  '  buffing,'  when  the  fetlock  is  struck 
and  bruised  with  the  flat  of  the  opposite  foot,  but  without  a 
wound  being  produced.  The  terms,  however,  are  employed  in 
different  senses  by  different  persons  and  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  so  that  the  above  definitions  must  be  regarded  as 
relative  only,  not  absolute. 

Injuries  are  thus  produced  on  the  inner  side  of  the  coronet, 
of  the  fetlock  joint,  or  sometimes,  in  front  limbs,  as  high  as  the 
knee.  The  last  condition  receives  a  special  name,  '  speedy- 
cuttino'.'     Lameness  is  a  common  result. 

The  injury  may  vary  from  mere  roughening  of  the  hair 
and  slight  abrasion  of  the  epidermis  to  severe  bruising, 
etc.,  causing  well-marked  lameness.  The  periosteum  may 
become  inflamed,  leaving  thickenings  and  exostoses  ;  some- 
times septic  material  obtains  entrance,  and  causes  violent 
inflammation  of  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue,  with 
abscess. 

The  causes  of  striking  may  be  referred  either  to  faulty 
shoeing  of  the  striking  foot  or  of  the  foot  struck,  to  fatigue 
(from  whatever  source  arising),  to  swellings  about  the  coronet 
or  fetlock,  to  the  conformation  of  the  limbs,  or  to  the  use  to 
which  the  horse  is  put.  Horses  with  well-formed  limbs  do 
not  strike  if  properly  shod ;  those  with  turned-in  toes  occa- 


PRELIMINARY   EXAMINATION   OF   HORSES   WHICH   CUT. 


287 


sionally  strike,  but  horses  in  which  the  limbs  appear  turned  in 
as  high  as  the  fetlock,  and  above  that  point  recede  from  one 
another,  very  frequently  strike.  Bouley  states  that  with 
turned-out  toes  the  striking  point  is  usually  towards  the  back, 
with  turned-in  toes  towards  the  front  of  the  foot,  but  this  is 
not  absolutely  correct.  AVhen  one  trace  is  longer  than  the 
other,  when  the  horse  (especially  if  young  and  fresh)  becomes 
tired,  and  when  the  shoes  are  much  worn,  striking  is  very  apt 
to  occur. 

To   minimise    or   prevent   this    fault,    the    examination    of 
the  limbs,  the  gait,  and  the  shoeing,  as  before  indicated,  must 


Fig.  279. — Examination  of  horse  that  strikes.    The  animal  sliowu  has  two  defects  :  its 
feet  are  too  closely  placed  and  it  crosses  the  feet  when  moving. , 


be  thorough  (fig.  279).  Four  chief  points  have  to  be  borne 
in  view :  the  formation  of  the  limbs,  the  inclination  of 
the  fetlock  joint  of  the  limb  which  is  struck,  the  style  of 
tread,  and  the  part  which  inflicts'  the  injury.  The  more 
closely  the  fetlock  joint  approaches  the  centre  of  the  body, 
the  less  the  '  clearance,'  and,  consequently,  the  greater  the 
chance  of  striking.  This  is  usually  produced  by  too  low 
an  inner  wall :  in  such  case  the  cause  is  to  be  sought  in 
the  foot  which  is  struck.  It  must  always  be  remembered, 
however,  that  when  the  limb  is  deformed,  i.e.,  when  the  toe  is 
turned  in  or  out,  the  foot  will  not  be  of  normal  shape, 
and  to  attempt  to  render  it  so  is  a  grave  error  which  will 


288 


FORGING   AND   CUTTING. 


probably  exaggerate  the  condition.  An  uneven  tread  is  apt 
to  result  in  an  irregular  method  of  advancing  the  foot;  this 
favours  striking.  Before  proceeding  to  special  measures,  it  is 
generally  desirable  to  try  the  effect  of  a  perfectly  flat  shoe 
and  level  bearing.  In  the  majority  of  cases  this  will  stop 
cutting.  The  point  which  strikes  can  usually  be  precisely 
located,  as  it  is  either  whitish  or  smooth,  or  at  least  free 
of  dirt;  sometimes  it  is  reddened  with  blood.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  such  indication,  the  hoof  or  the  point  struck  may 
be  whitened,  and  the  horse  trotted.  The  colouring  matter 
will  then  be  transferred   from   the  hoof  to  the  fetlock,  or  vwe 


Fig.  280. — Cutting  shoe,  ground  surface. 


Fig.  281.— Cutting  shoe,  foot  surface. 


versa,  and  the  exact  points  which  come  in  contact  clearly 
indicated. 

When  the  cause  is  too  broad  a  hoof,  projecting  clenches, 
twisting  of  the  shoe  on  the  foot,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
amend  the  shoeing,  but  when  faulty  conformation  is  in 
question,  the  striking  point  must  be  discovered,  the  hoof 
diminished  in  size,  its  bearing  surface  altered,  the  shoe 
opposite  it  straightened  and  so  applied  that  it  lies  well 
within  the  margin  of  the  hoof.  The  hoof  should  project 
to  the  extent  of  about  one-third  the  thickness  of  the 
wall.  When  striking  is  excessive,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
use  a  shoe  holed  and  nailed  only  on  one  side  ('  blind-sided 
shoe '). 

'  Anti-cutting '  shoes,  or  shoes  in  which  the  inner  limb  is 
diminished  in  width    and    deepened,  forming  a  '  wedge  heel ' 


KEMEDIES   FOK    STRIKING    AND   CUTTING. 


289 


(fig.  282),  are  useful  where  the  toe  is  turned  in,  especially  if 
the  inner  wall  of  the  foot  cannot  be  induced  to  grow  sufficiently 
fast  in  spite  of  careful  attention.  The  greater  depth  lifts  the 
otherwise  displaced  hoof  into  its  proper    position.       In  each 


~.jt 


FlQ.  282.— (Jutting  slioe  for  left  hind-foot. 
a,  position  of  clip.  The  dotted  line  shows 
the  outline  of  the  wall  of  the  hoof. 


Fig,  283.— Cutting  shoe  for  right  fore- 
foot, holed  on  one  side  only. 


«/_- 


Fid.  284.— Cutting  shoe  (right  hind)  for  horse  thaf  cuts  with  the  toe.    a,  quarter-clip. 


case   the   shoe   should   be   so    fitted    that    the    hoof    overlaps 
slightly  at  the  striking  part. 

When  the  horse  strikes  with  the  inner  surface  of  the  wall, 
and  when,  consequently,  injury  is  apt  to  occur  from  the 
clenches  projecting  as  the  shoes  wear  out,  shoes  holed  only 
on  one  side  are  employed  (figs.  282  and  283)  both  in  front 
and   behind.       The   style    of    tread  must    determine  whether 

T 


290 


FORGING   AND   CUTTING. 


such  shoes  should  be  made  with  low  heels  or  not.  It  seems 
plain,  however,  that  when  a  horse  with  turned-in  toes  strikes 
himself  in  spite  of  being  shod  with  anti-brushing  shoes,  the 
heels  are  either  too  high  or  altogether  harmful. 

For  horses  with  turned-out  toes  anti-cutting  shoes  are 
seldom  of  much  benefit.  These  animals  usually  cut  with  the 
inner  part  of  the  toe  or  quarter  close  to  the  toe ;  sometimes 
with  the  heel.  Consequently,  the  shoe,  whether  provided 
with  heels  or  not,  should  have  a  straight  margin  without  nail 
holes,  should  be  very  narrow  and  very  carefully  rounded 
off  in  a  downward  direction  at  the  striking  point  (tig.  284). 
The  hoof  should  also  extend  beyond  the  shoe.  The  other 
parts   of   the   inner  margin   of   the   shoe   may,  and   sometimes 


Fig.  285. — Shoes  for  horse  that  turns  the  toes  out.    a,  the  part  of  hoof  that  strikes  ; 
b,  the  inner  limb  of  shoe  is  seen  to  be  longer  and  broader  than  the  outer. 


even  must,  be  wider  than  the  hoof  at  the  heels.  It  is  some- 
times advisable  to  make  the  inner  heel  higher  than  the 
outer. 

The  width  of  the  outer  branch  also  requires  special  attention  ; 
towards  the  heel  it  should  be  narrow  and  closely  follow  the 
direction  of  the  wall,  while  it  must  be  kept  short,  for  a  long, 
projecting  outer  heel  favours  the  inward  thrusting  of  the 
fetlock  joint  by  throwing  the  weight  on  the  inner  half  of 
the  hoof.  It  thus  facilitates  striking.  It  need  scarcely 
be  remarked  that  the  clenches  should  sit  close  without 
projecting. 


FITTING   SHOES   FOR   HORSES   THAT   CUT.  291 

To  prevent  the  shoe  shifting   its  position   a  side  clip  (a) 
must   be   fitted.      Neither   the   shoe  nor  the  hoof  should  ex- 
hibit any  sharp  or  projecting  edges   on   the  inner  side,  and 
any  prominent   nail  heads  must  be  removed.     The  remedies 
for     striking    produced    by    local    swellings,    weakness,    over- 
work, or  unequal  length  of  the  traces  are  self-apparent.      In 
some  cases    shoeing   can   only  diminish   striking  and  the  in- 
jured part  must   always  be  protected  by  a  well-fitting  boot. 
Other  means   of    protection  are  the   insertion  of    a  fragment 
of  leather  between  shoe  and  hoof  which  projects  to  the  ex- 
tent of -|-  or  ^  inch  and  is  kept  well  greased.     The  contact 
of   the  leather  with    the    part   struck   is  less  injurious    than 
that  of   the   hoof  or  shoe.      Special  pads   are   made  for  this 
purpose,    consisting    of    a    small,    elongated,    rounded    portion 
and    a    flattened    expansion,    through    which    the    nails    are 
driven.     The  rounded  part   projects  at  the  sides  of  the  foot 
and  serves  the  same  purpose  as  the  leather.      Thick  rubber 
rings    are    occasionally    used,    being    slipped    over    the    hoof 
and  allowed  to  rest  just  below  the  fetlock.      Yorkshire  boots 
(of   doubled   blanket)   are    also    employed    as    temporary   pro- 
tection. 

Delperier  recently  described  a  very  ingenious  way  of 
preventing  the  horse  cutting.  He  used  gaiters  extending 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  coronet  to  below  the  knee, 
and  found  that,  by  tightly  lacing  these,  the  action  of  the 
limb  was  somewhat  limited  and  that  marked  abduction 
occurred.  His  experiments  extended  over  two  years,  and 
he  was  able  by  this  method  to  completely  prevent  cutting 
in  a  horse  which  had  resisted  all  other  methods  of  treat- 
ment. 

The  American  weighted  shoe  is  sometimes  of  value,  and  is 
certainly  worth  a  trial  in  inveterate  cases. 

A  last  method  is  to  insert  in  the  hollow  of  the  heel  a 
moderate  sized  pad  fixed  in  position  by  means  of  a  strap. 
This  limits  the  flexion  of  the  limb  in  a  similar  way  to 
Delperier's  gaiter  and  induces  a  degree  of  abduction  pro- 
portioned to  the  amount  of  interference  with  flexion.  A 
very  little  difference  in  movement  is  sufficient  to  entirely 
prevent  injury,  and  this  system  has  been  favourably  reported 
on  by  a  large  number  of  observers.      The  pad  does  not  cause 


292  FOEGING   AND   CUTTING. 

the  animal  to  appear  lame  or  to  go  unevenly,  as  the  opposite 
limb  is  moved  in  sympathy  with  the  one  to  which  it  is 
applied. 

The  tendency  to  strike  is  diminished  in  direct  proportion   to 
the  simplicity  and  lightness  of  the  shoe. 


Fig.  286. --Fullered  feather-edged  hind  shoe  (with  two  calkins). 
INIade  from  |  x  i  inch  iron. 


Fig.  287.— Feather-edged  stamped  hind  shoe  (with  two  nails  inside  toe). 

]\Iade  from  |  x  |  inch  iron. 

To  face  p.  293.] 


CARRIAGE   HOKSE   SHOES   (lIIND)    FOR    HORSES   THAT   CUT.     293 


SPECIAL  SHOES  FOR  HORSES  THAT  CUT. 

FULLERED  FEATHER-EDGED  HIND  SHOE 
(AVITH  TWO  CALKINS)  (Fig.  286).* 

Made  of  ^  x  }y  inch  iron. 

This  is  a  useful  shoe  for  carriage  horses  used  on  macadam 
roads,  and  for  horses  which  slip  with  their  hind-feet,  and  yet 
require  a  feather-edged  shoe.  It  gives  the  horse  better  foothold 
and  more  confidence  in  going.  The  calkins  should  be  rather 
low  and  strong.  In  the  shoe  illustrated  they  are  1-^  inches  in 
height.     The  clips  are  placed  on  either  side  of  the  toe. 


FEATHER-EDOED  STAMPED  HIND  SHOE  (WITH 
TWO  NAILS  INSIDE  TOE)  (Fig.  287). 

JIade  from  -|-  X  ^  mch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  much  used  in  London.  It  is  '  knocked  up ' 
inside,  has  a  calkin  on  the  outside  heel,  and  is  slipped  at  the 
toe  and  outside  quarter. 

Although  useful  as  a  stock  shoe  for  carriage  horses,  it  has 
no  special  advantage,  and  the  inside  limb  presenting  so  narrow 
a  bearing  surface  for  the  foot,  soon  liecomes  imbedded  in  the 
horn. 

*  Great  dilliculty  has  beeu  found  in  drawing  a  sharp  line  of  demarcation 
between  shoes  which  may  properly  be  regarded  as  of  every-day  use  and  those 
which  should  be  relegated  to  special  sections,  such  as  'cutting  and  forging.' 
The  arrangement  adopted  is  far  from  perfect,  but,  in  face  of  the  great  practical 
difficulties  to  be  encountered,  the  reader's  forbearance  is  relied  on. 


294  THE  PKACTICE  OF  SHOEING. 


PAr.TIALLY  FEATHER-EDGED  FULLEEED 
HIND  SHOE  (Fig.  288). 

Made  from  f  X  -J  inch  iron. 

For  harness  or  riding  horses  which  have  not  much  horn  at 
the  toe,  or  which  cut  towards  the  back  of  the  inside  heel  of 
shoe  and  require  to  be  clipped  on  either  side  of  the  toe,  this 
shoe  has  been  designed. 

Two  nail  holes  are  placed  in  a  short  length  of  fullering  close 
to  the  inside  toe.  The  calkin  on  the  outside  heel  gives  a 
certain  amount  of  hold  on  slippery  ground.  The  foot  surface 
of  the  inside  limb  is  considerably  greater  than  in  the  ordinary 
feather-edged  shoe,  and  the  shoe  is  therefore  less  likely  to  sink 
into  the  foot. 


PARTIALLY-FULLERED  FEATHER-EDGED 
HIND  SHOE  (Fig.  289). 

Made  from  ;|  X  -^  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  intended  for  harness  or  riding  horses  which  cut 
badly  at  the  inside  toe.  There  are  two  clips,  one  at  the  outside 
toe  and  another  at  the  inside  heel.  This  disposition  allows  the 
inside  toe  to  be  fitted  very  fine.  The  inside  clip  is  drawn  on 
the  corner  of  the  anvil  and  from  the  inside  of  the  shoe,  so  that 
no  clip  hole  appears  on  the  part  of  shoe  opposite  the  injured 
limb ;  this  part  of  the  shoe,  on  the  contrary,  presenting  a  per- 
fectly plane  surface.  The  shoe  is,  in  fact,  not  of  sufficient 
substance  at  this  point  to  allow^  of  a  clip  being  drawn  in  the 
ordinary  way. 

The  above  method  of  drawing  a  clip  is  worthy  of  special 
notice,  as  such  inside  clips  are  often  very  useful  when  the  horse 
breaks  the  inside  nail  of  his  hind  shoes  or  drives  the  shoe 
outwards. 


Fig.  288. — Partially  feather-edged  fullered  hind  shoe.     :\[ade  from  f  x  ^ 

inch  iron. 


Fig.  289.— Partially-fullered  feather-edged  hind  shoe. 

inch  iron. 


;Made  from  |  x  ^ 


\  To  face  p.  294. 


h,^aii||i,ii',i',|'i-i;it  '^^C 


Fig.  290. — Fullered  hind  shoe,  *  set'  inside.     Made  from  i  square  iron. 


Fig.  291. — Side  view  of  al)Ove  special  hind  shoe  for  horse  which  cuts  hi& 

fetlocks. 
To  face  p.  295.] 


CARRIAGE   HORSE   SHOES   (HIND)   FOR   CUTTING.  295 


FULLEKED  HIND  SHOE,  'SET'  INSIDE 

(Figs.  290,  291). 

Made  from  ^  square  iron. 

This  is  really  a  feather- edged  hind  shoe  which  can  be  nailed 
inside.  AVhen  a  horse  is  deficient  in  horn  at  the  toe,  or  the 
toe  cannot  be  utilised  and  the  horse  cuts  his  fetlocks  badly,  this 
shoe  is  very  useful.  Though  difficult  to  make  and  not  commonly 
used,  it  has  been  subjected  to  a  thorough  practical  test  and 
found  satisfactory. 

The  inside  of  the  shoe  is  drawn  very  much  like  that  of  an 
ordinary  feather-edged  shoe ;  it  is  then  turned  on  the  beak  iron 
of  the  anvil  and  the  '  set '  tool  applied.  When  sufficient 
'  ledge  *  is  obtained,  the  part  is  fullered  and  the  nail  holes 
stamped. 

The  shoe  has  a  calkin  outside  of  equal  height  with  the  in- 
side feather-edge  and  is  clipped  at  either  side  of  the  toe.  It  is 
suitable  for  hacks  or  for  harness  horses. 


296  THE   PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 


FULLEEEU  SEATED  FEATHEE-EDGED  FORE  SHOE. 
FOE  HAENESS  OE  EIDING  HOESE  (Fig.  292). 

Made  from  -|-  X  -J-  inch  iron. 

Where  [i  horse  cuts  close  to  the  inside  toe  and  has  a 
tendency  to  cast  his  shoes,  the  use  of  this  shoe  is  indicated. 
Two  nails  inside  give  greater  security  than  one,  and  the  clip 
provided  at  the  outside  quarter  prevents  the  shoe  being  driven 
in,  across  the  foot,  as  is  apt  to  occur  with  horses  which  go 
much  on  the  outside.-  The  quarter  clip  also  prevents  the 
farrier  placing  the  shoe  '  across  the  foot '  in  nailing-on. 

All  shoes  of  this  class  should  be  lightly  chamfered  or 
bevelled  along  the  outer,  lower  border  of  the  inside  limb. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  shoe  has  two  clips,  one  at  the  toe 
and  one  at  the  outer  quarter. 


FULLEEED  SEATED  FEATHEE-EDGED  FOEE  SHOE 

(Fig.  293). 

Made  from  1-|-  X  ^  inch. 

On  account  of  its  being  so  frequently  employed,  it  has  been 
thought  desirable  to  figure  this  shoe,  but  its  use  cannot  be 
recommended.  The  inside  quarter  and  heel  are  drawn  down 
almost  to  vanishing  point.  The  foot  surface  is  narrow,  and  the 
shoe  soon  becomes  embedded  in  the  foot,  bruising  the  sensitive 
structures  and  producing  corns. 


Fig.  292. — Fullered  seated  feather-edged  fore  shoe.     For  harness  or  riding. 

]\Iade  from  |  x  ^  inch  iron. 


Fig.  293. — Fullered  seated  feather-edged  fore  shoe. 

inch  iron. 


^Made  from  14  x  i 


¥ 


iTofacQ-p.  296. 


Fig,  294. — Fullered  featlier-edged  concave  fore  slioe.     INlade  from  -I  x  f 


B"    '^     8 


inch  iron. 


Fig.  295. — Fullered  hind  shoe  for  hack.     Made  from  I-  x  i  inch  iron 


^   ^    2 


To  face 'p.  297.] 


KACING   AND  HACK   SHOES   FOR  CUTTING,    FORGING,  ETC.      297 


FULLERED  FEATHER-EDGE  CONCAVE  FORE  SHOE 

(Fig.  294). 

Made  from  -^^  X  ^  inch  iron. 

This  is  a  very  light  pattern  shoe,  suitable  for  a  steeplechase 
horse  that  requires  a  feather-edged  shoe,  or  for  a  hunter  which 
wears  little  and  has  a  fairly  strong  foot.  The  lightness  of  the 
shoe  is,  in  itself,  a  powerful  factor  in  lessening  the  chance  of 
a  horse  cutting ;  and  the  toe-nail  being  placed  well  forward  and 
close  to  the  clip,  the  shoe  can  be  fitted  '  fine '  at  the  inside  toe. 

If  made  of  steel  this  shoe  often  cures  cases  where  a  horse 
both  '  cuts  '  and  *  forc^es.' 

It  may  even  be  used  for  riding  and  harness  horses  with 
strong  feet. 


FULLERED  HIND  SHOE  FOR  HACK  (Fig.  295). 
Made  from  -^'^  X  ^  inch,  iron . 

This  shoe  is  for  cases  where  it  becomes  necessary  to  nail  the 
shoe  back  at  the  inside  heel,  as  when  the  toe  is  defective  from 
having  been  worn  away  by  '  forging,'  or  wlien  the  horse  cuts  at 
the  inside  toe,  so  that  nails  either  cannot  be  inserted  at  that 
point,  or  the  fitting  has  to  be  so  very  '  fine '  that  some  other 
device  seems  preferable.  The  outside  calkin  is  perhaps  not  an 
advantage.  Calkins  seem  to  displace  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  body  in  a  forward  direction  or,  in  simple  language,  throw 
the  weight  of  the  l^ody  further  forward :  hence  the  offending 
foot  is  able  to  reach  further.  Whether  the  reader  accept  this 
explanation  or  not,  it  is  at  least  certain  that  some  horses  which 
forge  when  shod  with  calkins  cease  to  do  so  when  shod  flat 
(behind).  Of  course  flat  shoes  should  not  be  used  when  the 
horse  suffers  from  curb,  etc. 

Clips  are  placed  at  the  outside  toe  and  inside  heel.  The 
three  inside  naiWioles  can,  if  preferred,  be  stamped  without 
fullering. 


298  THE   PRACTICE   OF   SHOEING. 

CONCAVE  FEATHEE-EDGED  HIND  SHOE 
PARTIALLY  FULLEEED  (Fig.  296). 

Made  in  concave  tool  from  old  shoes  or  from  ^  x  i  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  has  the  inside  edge  chamfered  down,  is  level  on. 
the  ground  surface,  and  has  only  one  nail  hole,  stamped  well 
forward  close  to  the  toe-clip.  The  clips  are  not  shown  in 
drawing,  but  are  usually  drawn  at  the  toe  and  outside  quarter, 
the  shoe  being  intended  for  use  when  the  horse  cuts  badly. 
In  exceptional  cases  the  shoe  may  be  cut  down  to  three 
quarters  or  even  less  inside. 

Assuming  that  the  horse  cuts  to  this  degree,  only  one  nail 
can  be  placed  inside,  and  even  then  special  care  is  required  to 
see  that  the  nail  is  well  hammered  home,  the  clench  well 
drawn,  and  the  head  of  the  nail  rasped  off  flush  with  the  inside 
of  the  shoe  (i.e.,  the  surface  opposed  to  the  injured  fetlock). 
The  nail  hole  must  not  be  back-pritchelled,  or  only  very  slightly 
so,  as  this  is  a  frequent  cause  of  clenches  '  rising '  when  the 
shoes  become  worn. 

As  a  very  great  strain  falls  on  the  single  nail,  it  is  often 
advisable  to  draw  a  clip  at  the  inside  heel,  in  addition  to  those 
at  the  toe  and  outside  quarter.  In  this  position  the  clip 
relieves  the  single  nail  of  all  lateral  or  '  shearing '  stress,  and  is 
a  natural  advantage.  The  toe  of  the  foot  may  be  allowed  to 
overhang  that  of  the  shoe. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  repeat  that  the  inside  margin 
of  shoe  opposite  the  fetlock,  which  is  struck,  must  be  well 
chamfered  down,  as  shown. 

CONCAVE  PAETIALLY-FULLEEED  FEATHEE-EDGED 

HIND  SHOE  (Fig.  297). 

Made  in  voiuave  tool  from  old  shoes,  or  from  |-  x  -J  inch  iron. 

To  ignore  this  shoe  might  be  looked  upon  as  an  oversight, 
but  although  it  is  included  its  general  use  cannot  be  recom- 
mended. The  shoe  is  clipped  at  either  side  of  the  toe  ;  has  a 
calkin  on  the  outside,  and  an  inside  feather-edge  of  equal 
height  with  the  calkin. 


Fui.  296.— Concave  feather-edged  hind  shoe,  partially  fullered      Made  in 
concave  tool,  from  old  shoes  or  from  f  x  ^  inch  iron. 


Fig.  297.— Concave  partially-fullered  feather-edged  hind  shoe.     Made  in  concave 
tool  from  old  shoes  or  from  £  x  i  inch  iron. 

[To  face  p.  298. 


Fig.  298. — Feather- edged  fullered  concave  fore  shoe,     Made  in  concave  tool 

from  ^  X  ^  inch  iron  or  steel. 


Fig.  299.— Concave  three-quarter  hind  shoe.     Made  in  concave  tool  from 


S  X  i  inch  iron. 


To  face  p.  299.] 


TIACIXG    AND   HACK    SHOES   FOR   SEVERE   CASES   OF   CUTTING.    299 

The  objections  to  it  are,  the  narrowness  of  its  inside  foot 
surface,  which  becomes  imbedded  in  the  foot  after  two  or  three 
weeks'  wear,  and  may  loosen  the  wall  at  the  inside  quarter  or 
heel,  and  the  fact  that,  as  the  fullering  extends  round  the 
toe,  a  sharp  knife-like  edge  is  produced  capable  of  inflicting 
very  severe  injury  on  the  heel  of  the  fore-foot  in  case  of  the 
horse  overreaching. 


FEATHER-EDGED  FULLERED  CONCAVE 
FORE  SHOE  (Fig.  298). 

Made  in  concave  tool  from  -|  X  \  inch   iron  or  steel. 

This  shoe,  being  very  light,  is  suitable  for  steeplechasers, 
or  light-weight  hunters,  which  are  exercised  on  grass.  The 
inside  is  hammered  or  chamfered  down  to  a  very  narrow 
ground  surface,  although  the  foot  surface  of  the  inside  of  shoe 
is  preserved  of  equal  or,  if  anything,  of  greater  width  than 
that  of  the  outside.  The  inside  of  shoe  exhibits  one  nail  hole 
only,  and  is  fitted  very  fine.  Sometimes  it  is  possible  to  stamp 
a  second  nail  hole,  but  the  nail  heads  must  then  be  rasped  off 
flush  after  nailing  on  the  shoe. 

The  above  is  a  useful  shoe  for  horses  which  forge  badly 
and  cut  the  opposite  leg.  If  the  horse  is  used  on  the  road,  the 
shoe  must  be  of  steel.  The  fullering  is  produced  by  a  ridge  in 
the  groove  of  the  concave  tool. 


CONCAVE  THREE-QUARTER  HIND  SHOE 

(Fig.  299). 

Made  in   concave  tool  from   -|  x  -J-  inch    iron. 

In  some  cases  of  cutting,  as,  for  instance,  when  the  cutting 
part  is  near  the  heel,  this  shoe  is  very  effective.  Having  no 
nail  holes  at  the  toe,  it  can  also  be  well  '  set-back '  at  that 
point,  in  the  event  of  the  horse  overreaching,  and  on  account  of 


300  THE   PKACTICE   OF  SHOEING. 

the  inside  heel  being  cut  off,  it  may  be  advantageously  used  for 
a  horse  with  inside  false  quarter. 

Being  most  frequently  used  for  hunters  which  are  always  on 
soft  ground,  the  calkin  is  a  distinct  advantage  ;   but  when  ani-        f 
mals  thus  shod  are  worked  on  hard  roads,  there  is  a  tendency 
to  strain  the  joints,  as  the  bearing  is  uneven. 

As  shown  by  the  illustration,  the  clips  are  on  either  side  of 
the  toe. 


THREE-(^Ux\.ETER  PAKTIALLY  FULLEEED 
HIND  SHOE  (Fig.  300). 

Jfadc  frovi  old  sliocs,  steel,  or  ^  X  -|-  inch  iron. 

Many  horses  which  otherwise  cut  badly  can  be  kept  at  work 
by  using  this  shoe. 

As  the  fullering  stops  short  of  the  outside  toe  nail-hole, 
both  toe  nail-holes  can  be  stamped,  and  the  inner  one  can  be 
placed  well  forward,  while  a  strong  clip  can  also  be  drawn. 
The  position  of  the  clips  is  sufficiently  indicated  in  the  drawing. 
The  inside  limb  of  shoe  is  gradually  thinned  down  to  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch.  The  inner  margin  of  the  shoe  (opposite 
the  part  struck)  is  chamfered  down  and  liot  rasped,  so  as  to 
present  a  rounded  surface.  The  inside  toe  of  the  shoe  must  be 
fitted  very  fine. 

In  extreme  cases  of  cutting,  the  shoe  can  be  cut  off  close 
behind  the  inner  nail  hole.  The  disadvantaoes  of  this  shoe  are 
that,  as  the  position  of  the  inner  nail  hole  cannot  be  changed, 
the  nail  holes  come  in  precisely  the  same  spot,  time  after  time, 
when  shoeing  ;  if  the  feet  are  weak  and  brittle,  this  constitutes 
a  grave  drawback.  It  is  perhaps  scarcely  needful  to  point  out 
that  to  place  the  inner  nail  hole  closer  to  the  toe  would  inter- 
fere with  drawing  the  clip,  while  to  place  it  farther  back  would 
probably  result  in  the  animal  again  cutting. 


^Ss^^^^> 


Fia.  300. — Three-quarter  partially  fullered  hind  shoe.     ]\Iade  from  old  shoes, 

steel,  or  f  X  i  inch  iron. 


[To  face  p.  300. 


CHAPTER    lY. 

LEATHER  ANT)  RUl^.BER  SOLES,  ETC. 

These  soles  are  either  nailed  on,  and,  therefore,  remain  in 
position  until  the  next  shoeing,  or  are  slipped  in  and  out 
between  the  limbs  of  the  shoe. 

Until  comparatively  recently  only  leather  soles  were  in  use, 
the  object  being  to  protect  weak  soles  or  diminish  the  pressure 
of  the  shoe  on  the  hoof,  which  had  been  either  excessively 
worn  away  or  thinned  with  the  knife.  Ftubber  pads  are  quite 
a  modern  production.  Following  rubber  came  a  series  of 
materials,  such  as  cork,  straw,  tarred  rope,  felt,  bast,  hemp, 
wood  fibre,  etc.  \Miatever  the  nature  of  the  material,  the 
purpose  is  to  diminish  or  remove  the  disadvantages  resulting 
from  shoeing,  especially  in  horses  used  on  hard  pavements. 
As  one  such  contrivance  has  little  advantage  over  another, 
they  may  here  be  considered  in  general.  All,  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  (1)  prevent  slipping  and  falling  on  smooth  pave- 
ments, (2)  check  desiccation  of  the  sole,  (3)  prevent  balling  of 
snow  in  the  foot,  (4)  diminish  concussion,  (5)  favour  expansion 
of  the  foot,  and  (6)  guard  against  picking  up  nails. 

Leather  pads  transmit  to  the  sole,  frog,  and  bars  some  of  the 
weight  which  would  otherwise  fall  on  the  wall  and  increase  the 
functional  activity  of  tliese  parts.  In  a  degree,  therefore,  they 
restore  the  hoof  to  the  normal  unshod  condition.  Eemember- 
ing  that  many  diseased  conditions,  like  contracted  hoof,  sand- 
crack  of  the  wall  or  bars,  corns,  etc.,  are  ameliorated,  if  not 
cured,  by  removing  the  shoes  and  turning  the  horse  out,  the 
improvement  produced  by  artificial  soles  is  more  easily  under- 
stood. When  used  with  suitable  shoes  they  provide  a  means 
not  only  of  arresting  the  bad  results  of  shoeing,  but  also  of 
curinii  foot  diseases  while  allowinj^r  the  animal  to  work. 
Expansion  of  the  hoof  follows  their  use.     Nevertheless,  they 


302  LEATHER  AND   KUBBER   SOLES,   ETC. 

have  their  disadvantages.  Occasionally  they  cause  thrush, 
bruising  of  the  sole,  and,  in  some  instances,  they  tend  to  loosen 
the  shoe.  When  the  sole  is  permanently  hxed  in  position, 
thrush  is  comparatively  common  and  cannot  always  be  pre- 
vented even  by  using  antiseptics  or  tar  dressings.  Leather 
pads,  therefore,  should  only  be  used  when  the  horse  works  on 
hard  pavements.  The  following  resuvU  is  far  from  exhaustive, 
but  contains  a  description  of  the  pads  most  frequently  used. 

1.  Leather  Soles 

are  formed  of  leather  from  yg-  to  ^  inch  in  thickness.  The 
hoof  surface  of  the  shoe  is  laid  on  a  square  piece  of  this,  the 
outer  margin  and  the  recess  for  the  clip  marked,  and  the  sole 
cut  out.  As  the  sole  raises  the  hoof  and  renders  it  somewhat 
wider,  the  shoe  must  be  fashioned  to  correspond.  The  clips 
should  be  drawn  rather  longer  than  usual,  the  exact  extra 
length  being  the  thickness  of  the  leather  used.  The  leather  of 
the  sole  is  fastened  to  the  heel  of  the  shoe  by  means  of  a 
*  stub.*  The  leather  sole  itself  is  of  comparatively  little 
service,  but  becomes  much  more  effective  when  the  space 
between  it  and  the  horny  sole  is  filled  with  tow  or  similar 
elastic  material,  which  transmits  to  the  sole  a  certain  amount 
of  the  pressure  produced  during  motion.  The  tow  may  be 
locally  distributed,  any  portion  of  the  hoof  which  is  painful 
being  left  uncovered ;  other  parts  may  be  caused  to  take  more 
pressure.  Leather  soles  can  be  used  both  for  ordinary  and  bar 
shoes,  even  when  the  frog  is  affected  with  thrush.  In  such 
case,  all  loose  parts  are  removed  from  the  diseased  frog,  which 
is  dressed  with  carbolic  solution,  smeared  with  Stockholm 
(wood)  tar  or  Venice  turpentine,  so  as  to  protect  the  frog  from 
the  air  and  from  septic  matter,  and  the  space  completely 
filled  with  tampons  of  tow.  It  is  only  necessary  to  use  suffi- 
cient tow  to  exercise  moderate  pressure  on  the  sole.  With  the 
exception  of  cases  of  canker  and  exposure  of  the  sensitive 
structures  of  the  sole,  the  leather  sole  with  stopping  may  be 
used  with  advantacfc  in  all  hoof  diseases. 

Disadvantages. — The  most  frequent  accident  is  the  entrance 
of  sand,  etc.,  between  the  horn  and  leather,  causing  bruised 
sole.     When  the  stopping  is  carefully  inserted,  however,  this 


INDIA-RUBBER   FROG   PADS. 


303 


need  not  be  feared.  Drying  of  the  leather  sole  can  be  pre- 
vented by  dressing  the  upper  surface  with  tar  or  grease.  In 
treating  narrow  or  contracted  hoofs  it  is  well  every  few  days 
to  immerse  the  entire  hoof  in  a  bucket  of  water  so  as  to 
thoroughly  moisten  the  horn.  Afterwards  the  sole  itself  may 
be  rubbed  with  some  form  of  hoof  dressing. 


2.  Rubber  Pads  ox  Leather. 

The  leather  used  is  similar  to  the  foregoing,  but  on  it  is  sewu, 
or  more  frequently  cemented,  a  mass  of  rubber  of  varying 
shape.  In  the  case  of  fig.  301  the  rubber  is  about  f  inch 
and  in  fig.  302  about  |-  inch  in  thickness.  In  the  sole  shown 
in  fig.  301  the  rubber  corresponds  in  size  to  the  width  of  the 
posterior  third   of   the   hoof.     The  heels   of   the   shoe  are,  of 


Fig.  301.— Rubber  bar  pad  on  leather. 


Fig.  302. — Rubber  frog  pad  on  leather. 


course,  shortened.  The  pad  shown  in  fig.  302  is  used  with  an 
ordinary  flat  shoe.  As  the  rubber  projects  considerably  the 
shoe  should  be  made  a  little  thicker  than  usual,  though  to  act 
most  effectually  the  rubber  must  project  -J-  inch  beneath  the  shoe. 
The  pad  shown  in  fig.  302  is  much  more  easily  and  rapidly 
fixed  than  that  shown  in  fig.  301.  These  pads  are  useful  both 
for  sound  and  for  many  diseased  hoofs,  in  which  they  may 
advantageously  be  used  where  a  leather  sole  would  otherwise 
be  applied,  while  at  the  same  time  they  prevent  slipping. 
They  are  only  fully  effectual  when  used  in  conjunction  with  a 
properly  applied  stopping  of  tow  and  tar. 


304 


LEATHER   AND   RUBBER   SOLES,   ETC. 


3.  DowNiE  &  Harris's  Eubber  Pad  with  Frog  Cleft. 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  riihher  pads.  It  is  fixed  to  the 
shoe  and  forms  a  cushion,  at  the  same  time  transmitting 
pressure  to  the  sole  and  hars.  Towards  the  frog  cleft  (b)  it  is 
depressed  and  becomes  thinner  (a).  The  margins  of  the  frog 
cleft  should  lie  in  the  lateral  furrows  of  the  frog.  The  pad 
prevents  concussion,  diminishes  slipping,  and  obviates  balling 
of  snow.      It  can   be   worn   continuously  and  improves  many 


ElG.  302  A. — Downie's  rubber  pad.    a,  concave  portiou  ;  b,  incision  for  the  recei)tioii  of 
the  frog ;  c,  outer  margin  on  which  the  wall  rests. 

(defective)  feet.  For  convex  soles,  however,  it  is  disadvantage- 
ous, and  in  very  oblique  hoofs  there  is  difficulty  in  applying  it. 
In  fitting  it  the  lateral  furrows  of  the  frog  should  be 
moderately  cut  out,  especially  towards  the  heel,  and  to  make  it 
correspond  to  the  sole  the  pad  must  sometimes  be  trimmed  with 
the  knife.  The  shoe  should  be  moderately  strong  and  not 
excessively  seated  out,  the  inner  upper  border  being  well  rounded 
off.  At  the  toe  the  pad  should  not  project  below  the  ground 
surface  of  the  shoe,  but  at  the  heels  it  may  extend  -|-  inch 
lower.  In  driving  the  nails  the  cushion  part  should  be  pressed 
against  the  inner  margin  of  the  shoe  by  the  thumb  of  the  left 
hand,  so  as  to  ensure  its  lying  correctly.  The  disadvantages 
of  using  this  pad  are  the  occasional  loosening  of  the  shoe  and 
the  entrance  of  sand,  which  leads  to  bruising"  of  the  sole. 


hartmann's  kemovable  kubbek  pad. 


305 


4.  Hartmann's  Removable  Rubber  Pad. 

This  consists  of  an  oval  thick  mass  of  rubber,  correspond- 
ing in  outline  to  the  inner  border  of  the  shoe.  The  surface 
opposed  to  the  hoof  is  rounded  and  exhibits  at  the  back  a 
depression  for  the  reception  of  the  frog ;  the  under  surface  has 
two  long  shallow  depressions.  At  the  front  and  on  either  side 
a  steel  tongue  projects,  which  slips  into  the  space  between  the 
sole  and  seated  portion  of  the  shoe  and  holds  the  pad  in  position. 

The  shoe  must  be  well  seated,  and  the  heels  converge  suffi- 
ciently to  prevent  the  pad  slipping  out  behind.  Special  tongs 
(fig.  302  b)  are  used  for  inserting  and  removing  the  pad,  which 


Fig.  302  b. — Showing  method  of  inserting  Hartmann's  pad,  and  use  of  tongs. 

is  bent  on  itself,  placed  in  position,  and  fastened  by  allowing 
the  little  steel  projections  to  slip  between  the  shoe  and  the 
hoof.  The  tongs  are  then  relaxed  and  removed,  the  pad  re- 
covers its  shape,  thrusting  the  steel  'tongues  well  under  the 
shoe. 

This  pad  is  useful  in  winter,  when  it  prevents  the  balling  of 
snow  very  effectually,  and  in  summer  for  horses  working  at 
high  speed  on  hard  roads. 

It  can  be  used  for  all  horses  with  concave  soles,  but  when 
the  sole  is  flat  it  is  of  little  value,  if  not  positively  injurious, 
while  it  is  difficult  to  fit  to  the  foot,  because  the  shoe  must 
not  only  fit  the  margin  of  the  hoof  but  that  of  the  pad  in 
addition,  while  the  nail  holes  cannot,  of  course,  be  displaced. 

u 


306 


LEATHER  AND   RUBBER   SOLES,  ETC. 


The  more  irregular,  therefore,  the  form  of  the  hoof  the  more 
difficult  does  fitting  become. 

Whether  the  horse  will  go  well  or  badly  depends  upon  the 
fit  of  the  pad.  The  sole  will  not  bear  strong  and  continued 
pressure,  and,  therefore,  while  the  back  of  the  pad  may  project 
slightly  below  the  shoe,  the  toe  should  always  be  above  its 
ground  surface,  and  even  then  should  yield  a  little  under  the 
pressure  of  the  finger.  To  secure  this,  the  pad  when  first 
applied  must  be  fitted  to  the  concavity  of  the  sole  by  rasping 


Fig.  303.— Hoof  surface  of  shoe  with  Hartmann's  pad  inserted. 


or  paring.  The  hoof  is  prepared  as  usual,  except  that  the 
point  of  the  frog  must  not  be  left  too  high.  After  fastening 
the  shoe  with  a  couple  of  nails  the  pad  is  inserted,  and  if 
found  to  fit  the  nailing  on  is  completed  as  usual. 

Twenty  different  sizes  are  made,  ten  in  rounded  and  ten  in 
long  forms.  For  hind-feet  ten  different  sizes  are  also  manu- 
factured, so  that  there  should  seldom  be  much  difficulty  in 
fitting  the  foot.  The  pad  should  always  be  long  enough  to 
cover  the  limbs  of  the  frog. 

The  time  it  will  wear  varies  according  to  the  horse's  work. 
It  may  serve  for  as  many  as  four  shoeings.  As  soon  as  the 
horse  is  brought  home  the  pads  should  be  removed  and  washed. 


ROPE   AND   STRAW    PADS. 


307 


If  left  on  the  feet  they  favour  thrush,  bruising  of  the  sole,  and 
other  mischief. 

These  pads  are  contra-indicated  when  there  is  extensive 
disease  in  the  white  line.  They  should  then  be  replaced  by 
leather  soles.  They  should  never  be  used  in  the  treatment  of 
diseases  of  the  hoof,  except  under  the  advice  of  a  veterinary 
surgeon.  Similar  pads,  provided  on  the  ground  surface  with 
a  number  of  depressions  and  on  the  hoof  surface  with  a  layer 
of  spongy  rubber,  are  made  by  Priest  &  Co.,  Oxford  Street,  W. 
They  are  termed  anti-concussion  pads. 

5.  liopE  Pads  (fixed) 

consist  of  a  leather  sole  covered  on  the  hoof  surface  with  thick 
felt  and  on  the  ground  surface  with  a  flat  coil  of  rope  arranged 
to  form  a  pad  resembling  Hartmann's.  They  are  inserted  in 
the  same  way.  On  moist,  greasy  asphalt,  wood,  or  stone 
pavements  these  are  more  effectual  against  slipping  than 
Hartmann's,  on  account  of  their  picking  up  sand  and  always 
presenting  a  rough  surface.  They  are  not  removed  in  the 
stable. 

6.  Straw  Pads 

were  invented  by  a  German  military  veterinary  surgeon, 
Reinicke.     They  consist  of  straw  plaited  into  a  flat  mass,  corre- 


"  Fig.  304.— Special  shoe  for  straw  or  fibre  pad.     Fig.  305.— Upper  surface  of  above  shoe. 

spending   in  shape  to  the  space  enclosed  by  the  shoe.     The 
shoe  used  with  them  is  well  seated  out,  and  provided  with 


308  LEATHEli   AND   KUBBEK   PADS,   ETC 


three  projections  on  its  inner  margin,  while  the  heels  are 
turned  inwards  at  the  ends,  like  a  broken  or  interrupted  bar 
shoe.  Before  insertion,  the  straw  is  moistened,  and  the  horny 
sole  smeared  with  tar  to  prevent  thrush.  To  ensure  it  re- 
maining in  position,  the  pad  should  be  so  large  that  its  margin 
extends  between  the  hoof  and  shoe.  It  has  the  same  advan- 
tages as  the  rope  pad,  and  is  very  cheap — in  fact,  it  can  be 
made  by  the  groom.  Its  disadvantages  are :  the  rapidity  with 
which  it  wears  out  on  rough  hard  ground,  and  the  fact  that  in 
thrushy  feet  its  use  aggravates  the  disease,  despite  the  previous 
use  of  tar  or  other  disinfectant.  Pads  formed  of  wood  fibre  or 
hemp  are  somewhat  more  durable,  but  otherwise  have  no 
special  advantages  over  straw  pads. 

7.  Cork  Pads 

are  made  by  cutting  from  a  sheet  of  cork  about  ^  inch  thick 
a  piece  corresponding  in  size  to  the  outline  of  the  seated 
portion  of  the  shoe.  The  piece  is  then  pared  so  as  to  fit  the 
surface  of  the  sole,  and  the  outer  and  under  margin  cut  away, 
corresponding  to  the  seating  of  the  shoe.  After  being  softened 
in  hot  water,  the  mass  of  cork  is  forced  into  position  between 
the  limbs  of  the  shoe.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  heels  to  be 
so  incurved  as  when  using  straw  pads,  nor  for  the  cork  to 
enter  so  far  under  the  shoe.  Being  at  first  soft,  it  moulds 
itself  to  the  inner  margin  of  the  shoe. 

The  cork  pad  is  light,  cheap,  and  durable ;  sometimes,  how- 
ever, it  induces  thrush. 

8.  Felt  Pads. 

Felt,  which  on  account  of  its  soft,  elastic  nature  has  been 
largely  employed,  as  an  upper  layer,  in  various  forms  of  pad  for 
tender  feet,  and  even  as  a  material  for  the  fabrication  of  entire 
pads,  does  not,  in  general,  deserve  the  praise  it  has  received. 
It  is  too  yielding,  and,  therefore,  does  not  always  prevent  pressure 
by  the  shoe.  It  rubs  through  at  the  heels,  takes  up  too  much 
water,  and  in  oblique  hoofs  renders  the  sole  soft.  Further,  its 
yielding  soon  causes  the  shoe  to  become  loose.  In  all  these- 
respects  it  is  much  inferior  to  leather.     If  it  is  intended  merely  to 


PADS   OF   ELASTIC   CEMENT  AND   OF   FELT.  oOO 

prevent  shock,  felt  should   be   employed   in   con  junction   with 
leather. 

9.   Pads  of  Elastic  Ck.mknt. 

In  this  case  the  shoe  is  of  the  ordinary  variety,  the  pad 
being  inserted  after  shoeing  is  complete.  The  hoof  is  first 
cleansed  and  disinfected.  The  elastic  cement  is  melted  in  a 
ladle  over  a  slow  tire,  until  it  forms  a  thick  Huid.  It  is  then 
smeared  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  sole  with  an  iron 
spatula,  and  well  pressed  in  between  the  seating  of  the  shoe 
and  the  hoof.  When  sufhcient  has  been  inserted,  the  cement 
is  cooled  in  water,  or  the  hoof  let  down,  i  hough  in  such  case 
the  ground  must  be  level  and  moist,  so  that  the  cement  shall 
not  stick  to  it.  Instead  of  being  melted  in  a  ladle,  the 
cement  may  be  softened  in  water  until  ductile,  in  which  con- 
dition it  is  pressed  into  the  hoof. 

Artificial  soles  of  elastic  cement  appear  to  succeed  very 
well,  the  upper  surface  necessarily  corresponding  exactly  in 
shape  to  the  sole,  of  which  it  is  a  plastic  reproduction.  The 
counter-pressure  of  the  ground  is,  therefore,  evenly  transmitted 
to  the  entire  sole. 

The  frog  can  be  covered  or  left  exposed.  At  the  toe  the 
ground  surface  of  the  shoe  should  be  about  -J-  inch  deeper  than 
the  inserted  cement,  so  that  the  latter  does  not  touch  the 
ground   when  the  animal   stands  on  a  level  surface. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  SHOEING  OF  MULES  AND  ASSES. 

Mules  and  asses  used  on  htird  roads,  either  in  draught  or 
under  the  saddle,  must  necessarily  be  shod.  In  these  animals 
the  formation  and  functions  of  the  hoof  are  precisely  similar  to 
those  of  the  horse,  the  form  alone  dififering  somewhat.  The 
mule's  hoof  is  long'  and  narrow,  round  at  the  toe,  possesses 
somewhat  upright  quarters  and  a  concave  sole.  In  the  ass  the 
elongated  form  is  still  more  pronounced.  The  horn  of  the  wall 
is    thick,    the   entire     frog    well     developed,   especially   in   its 


Fig.  306.— Hind-foot  of  ass, 
seen  from  below. 


Fig.  307.— Fore-foot  of  ass, 
seen  from  below. 


Fig.  308.— Fore-foot  of  mule, 
seen  from  below. 


limbs,  and,  therefore,  the  posterior  portion  of  the  hoof  is  com- 
paratively wide  (see  fig.  306).  In  both  animals  the  horn  is 
very  tough.  In  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  hoof,  and  com- 
pared with  small  equine  hoofs,  the  thickness  of  the  wall  in 
mules  and  asses  is  very  marked.  In  mules  the  hoof  at  the 
toe  is  from  |^  inch  to  i  inch,  at  the  quarters  -^  inch  less,  and 
at  the  heels  about  \  inch  in  thickness.      In  asses  the  thickness 


MULE   SFIOES.  311 

at  the  toe  is  -f^  inch  to  ^  inch,  at  the  quarters  -^^  inch  to 
|-  inch,  and  at  the  heels  -j^  inch  to  ^-  inch. 

The  shoes  differ  from  those  of  the  horse  in  respect  of 
the  number  and  disposition  of  the  nail  holes,  and  in  being 
lighter  and  less  thick.  In  the  ass  the  nail  holes  need  not 
exceed  four,  and  in  the  mule  five  to  six  in  number. 

As  the  wall  is  very  hard  and  tough,  the  nails  employed  are 
short,  but  fairly  stout.'  Ordinary  horse  nails  are  rather  weak 
in  the  shank,  and,  though  often  used,  are  liable  to  double  up 
when  being  driven,  if  used  for  donkeys  or  mules. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

CAEE    OF    THE    HOOF. 

The  ideas  entertained  by  many  owners,  and  especially  by 
farriers  and  coachmen,  as  to  the  proper  treatment  of  the  hoof, 
are  usually  so  peculiar,  and  their  practice  is  attended  by  such 
disastrous  results,  that  a  few  remarks  on  the  care  of  the  hoof 
may  not  be  superfluous.  The  primary  objects  should  be  to 
retain  the  natural  form  of  the  hoof,  and  to  keep  the  horn 
sound  and  elastic. 

(a)  Tkeatment  of  Unshod  Hoofs. 

The  treatment  of  the  foal's  hoof  is  of  considerable  import- 
ance. The  most  beneficial  effects  are  obtained  by  free  exercise 
on  dry  but  not  stony  ground.  The  hoofs  being  thus  worn 
down,  it  is  only  occasionally  necessary  to  note  whether  wear  is 
regular,  and  should  it  not  be  so,  to  remove  irregularities  with 
the  rasp. 

When  foals  are  confined  to  the  stable  this  regulai-  wear 
ceases,  the  hoof  becomes  distorted,  the  wall  growing  too  long, 
becoming  bent,  or  at  times  even  separated,  from  subjacent 
structures.  Weak  heels  tend  to  bend  inwards  and  to  diminish 
in  width.  The  toe  becomes  elongated,  rendering  the  fetlock 
too  sloping,  the  tread  unsafe,  and  the  gait  stumbling.  It  should, 
therefore,  be  shortened  from  time  to  time.  In-curved  heels 
are  to  be  lowered  and  the  outer  and  lower  margin  of  the 
wall  rounded  off  with  the  rasp.  Should  the  hoof  begin  to 
assume  a  flat  appearance  much  may  be  done  to  remedy  the 
defect  by  intelligent  trimming  of  the  hoof,  always  keeping  in 
mind,  however,  the  normal  relations  of  the  hoof  and  foot  axes. 
Eegular  washing  of  the  hoofs  and  the  provision  of  plenty 
of  clean  bedding  are  of  great  importance. 


TREATMENT   OF   THE    HOOF.  313 

The  shoeing  of  colts  is  to  be  strongly  deprecated.  The 
development  of  the  hoof  is  impeded  by  shoeing,  and  young 
horses  when  shod  are  often  excessively  worked  and  thus  ruined 
before  they  attain  maturity.  Moderate  w^ork  in  the  fields  does 
not  injure  young  stock,  but  for  this  purpose  shoes  are  not 
required. 

When  full-grown  unshod  horses  are  not  regularly  exercised 
it  is  also  necessary  from  time  to  time  to  lower  the  wall  and  to 
round  off  its  outer  edge  with  the  rasp. 


(6)  Cake  of  the  Shod  Hoof. 

The  hoof  when  shod  is  more  exposed  to  injury  than  when 
unshod,  for  shoeing,  though  absolutely  necessary  to  permit  of 
work  on  hard  roads,  prevents  or  diminishes  the  expansion  and 


Fig.  309.— Instniinents  for  cleaning  out  feet.    Left,  portable  form  :  rijjht,  stable  form 

with  hammer. 

-contraction  of  the  hoof,  and  thus  interferes  witli  local  circula- 
tion and  checks  the  growth  of  horn. 

To  this  may  be  added  the  bad  effects  of  standing  in  stables. 
The  animal  suffers  from  want  of  exercise,  from  the  foulness  of 
the  surface  on  which  it  stands,  and  from  drvint;  of  the  hoof. 
Continued  standing  causes  contraction  of  the  hoof,  a  condition 
favoured  by  dryness.  This  is  best  seen  in  front  hoofs.  Badh- 
laid  or  uneven  floors  cause  fatigue  of  the  limbs,  favour  the 
accumulation  of  urine,  etc.,  and  are  thus  indirectly  responsible 
for  attacks  of  thrusli.  To  prevent  such  contingencies  the  hoof 
should  be  shortened  every  foui-  to   six  weeks,  and  if  necessary 


314  CARE   OF   THE   HOOF. 

the  horse  should  be  re-shod.  The  stall  should  be  kept  clean 
and  the  foot  itself  moist.  The  straw  should  be  dry  and 
renewed  daily,  and  the  hoofs  picked  out  and  washed  everyi 
morning.  This  will  prevent  thrush  in  the  hind-feet.  The 
front-feet  gain  sufficient  moisture  from  the  daily  washing  to^ 
preserve  their  elasticity,  and  thus  permit  of  the  horny  capsule 
yielding  when  weight  is  thrown  on  the  hoof.  To  prevent  the 
hoofs  becoming  dry,  the  entire  surface  may  afterwards  be 
smeared  with  hoof  ointment.  This  prevents  loss  of  moisture, 
and,  in  cases  where  daily  washing  is  impossible,  some  variety 
of  hoof  dressing  is  advisable.  Only  a  small  quantity  of 
the  ointment  is  necessary,  but  the  entire  hoof,  especially 
the  perioplic  ring,  frog,  and  horny  sole,  should  be  covered. 
Vaseline  and  lanoline  are  very  good  dressings,  the  latter  being 
somewhat  expensive.  •  One  of  the  chief  means  of  securing  a 
healthy  hoof  is  plenty  of  exercise.  This  increases  local  circula- 
tion and  growth  of  horn,  for  which  reason  horses  in  regular 
work  usually  have  better  hoofs  than  those  much  confined  to 
the  stable. 

Note. — Zschokke,  Smith,  and  Dominik  have  all  made  experi- 
ments on  the  action  of  hoof  ointments.  Zschokke  considers 
they  diminish  absorption  and  evaporation,  and  are  most  effectual 
where  these  processes  go  on  most  actively,  viz.,  in  the  frog  and 
in  the  sole.  They  have  little  effect  on  the  horn  wall.  Vase- 
line and  lanoline  produce  the  best  results,  glycerine  tends  to 
dry  the  hoof. 

Apart  from  this  indirect  action  no  hoof  ointment  appears  to 
have  much  effect  in  preserving  the  horn.  Vaseline,  applied  to 
freshly  trimmed  soles  and  frogs,  may  prevent  rapid  drying  of 
the  exposed  horn  and  exclude  dirt  or  irritant  Huids.  Its 
action  principally  depends  on  its  retarding  the  evaporation  of 
water  previously  absorbed  ;  it  has  little  effect  on  the  wall, 
and  its  effects  on  the  sole  and  frog  are  increased  by  previous 
cleansing.  An  ideal  hoof  dressing  should  not  chemically  alter 
the  horn,  should  keep  well,  be  impervious  to  moisture,  exercise 
a  disinfectant  action,  and  be  cheap.  According  to  Veterinary- 
Major  Fred.  Smith  (see  "  The  Chemistry  of  the  Hoof  of  the 
Horse,"  Veterinary  Journal,  1887,  page  373),  the  horn  very 
readily  loses  water,  fresh  wall  horn  losing  in  twenty-four  hours 
from   1-92  to  2*45   per  cent.,  and  in  five  days  from  4-36   to 


HOOF   DRESSINGS   AND   THEIR   ACTION.  315- 

4*71  per  cent.  Smith  gives  the  following  figures  as  to  the 
capacity  for  absorption  of  fresh  wall  horn.  In  from  twenty- 
six  to  ninety-eight  days  the  horn  absorbed : — 

Water,  .  .  .  20'3G  per  cent. 

Castor  oil,  .  .  0*2 34  per  cent,  (brittle,  dry  horn). 

Olive  oil,  .  .  2-2  per  cent. 

Lanoline,  .  .  8*5  per  cent. 

The  loss  of  such  substances  in  a  j^iven  time  is  more  or  less  the 
same  as  the  gain.  Dominik  has  confirmed  the  experiments  of 
Zschokke  and  added  to  them  as  follows : — 

1.  Horn  loses  moisture  but  slowly ;  evaporation  is  greatest 
from  the  periople,  frog,  sole,  and  portions  of  the  wall  which 
have  been  rasped  or  fissured. 

2.  Horn  takes  up  water  to  a  slight  extent,  absorption  being 
freest  in  the  frog  and  periople ;  less  so  in  the  freshly  pared 
sole  and  in  the  rasped  and  fissured  wall.  ,. 

3.  The  frog  and  periople  become  completely  softened  and 
their  length  and  thickness  alter. 

4.  Hoof  ointments  diminish  both  evaporation  and  absorption 
of  water,  especially  by  the  periople  and  frog. 

5.  Oil  is  a  less  valuable  dressing-  than  ointment.  The 
dressing  should  be  of  moderately  firm  consistence  and  may 
contain  wax,  turpentine,  and  fat.  ■■ 

6.  Tar  penetrates  and  softens  the  superficial  layers.  It  is, 
therefore,  only  suitable  for  the  sole  and  frog,  in  which  the; 
superficial  parts  are  naturally  shed.  , 

7.  Ointments  of  wax,  turpentine,  and  fat  are  most  effectual 
on  the  periople,  on  the  freshly  trimmed  frog  and  sole,  and 
on  the  rasped  or  fissured  wall.  They  preserve  the  elasticity  of 
the  horn  chiefiy  by  preventing  evaporation.  Poultices  and 
foot-baths  are  only  necessary  where  the  feet  become  excessively 
dry  from  horses  standing  continuously  in  the  stable. 

As  ointments  have  little  power  of  softening  horn,  their  us^ 
should  always  be  preceded  by  that  of  water. 


SECTIOlsr  III. 

THE   SHOEING   OF   DISEASED    FEET 
AND   OF   LAME   HORSES. 


On  account  of  the  intimate  coniioctiou  and  interaction 
between  the  hoof  and  the  linil)  above  it,  changes  in  one  part 
are  usually  associated  with  changes  in  the  other,  and  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  sound  action  and 
lameness.  Disease  of  the  limb  may  produce  changes  in  the 
form  and  condition  of  the  foot,  while,  vice  versa,  changes  in  the 
foot  or  faults  in  shoeing  may  be  followed  by  disease  in  the 
limb.  The  diagnosis  of  disease  of  the  hoof  and  limb  is  chiefly 
the  function  of  the  veterinary  surgeon.  l)ut  the  instructed 
farrier  should  possess  at  least  an  elementary  knowledge, 
because  it  is  his  duty,  on  the  one  hand,  to  avoid  inducing 
disease,  and,  on  the  other,  to  prevent  or  minimise  its  evil 
•effects. 


CHAPTER    I. 

INFLAMMATION^  WITHIN  THE  HOOF. 

Lameness  is  usually  produced  by  a  localised  disease  process, 
consisting  of  interference  with  nutrition  and  its  resulting 
phenomena,  which  are  recognised  under  the  title  of  inflamma- 
tion. The  first  stage  of  inflammation  is  indicated  by  the 
sudden  determination  of  blood  to  the  part.  This  is  followed 
by  congestion  and  even  by  complete  stoppage  of  circulation  in 


INJURIES   TO   HORN    SECKETING   STRUCTURES.  31T 

the  injured  area.  Certain  constituents  of  the  blood  may  then 
pass  through  the  vessel  walls  into  neighbouring  tissues,  causing 
changes  in  form  and  relation  and  interfering  with  the  function 
of  the  inflamed  parts. 

The  symptoms  of  intlammation  are  five,  viz.,  pain,  increased 
warmth,  local  reddening,  swelling,  and  impaired  function. 
These  symptoms  are  only  to  be  observed  in  their  entirety  during 
inflammation  of  superficial  portions  of  the  body.  Inflammation 
of  internal  organs,  on  the  other  hand,  can  only  be  conjectured 
from  disturbed  function  and  its  consequences. 

In  inflammation  within  the  hoof  the  Ave  above  named 
symptoms  are  all  present  though  not  all  observable ;  thua 
swelling  and  redness  can  only  be  noted  when  the  coronary 
band  and  the  bulbs  are  inflamed,  and  even  then  redness  is  only 
to  be  seen  in  non-pigmented  skin.  In  laminitis,  however, 
another  important  symptom  is  usually  present,  viz.,  increased 
pulsation  of  the  digital  arteries.  Pain,  increased  warmth,  and 
lameness  are,  however,  invariably  present,  and  are,  therefore, 
of  the  greatest  diagnostic  value.  The  seat  of  inflammation  is 
usually  the  corium.  When  lameness  is  solely  due  to  contrac- 
tion, etc.,  of  the  hoof,  symptoms  of  inflammation  are  wanting, 
though  laminitis  is  probably  more  apt  to  occur  in  weak  and 
fleshy  than  in  sound,  strong  hoofs. 

The  inflammation  in  from  about  two  to  six  days  ends  in 
resolution,  or  may  be  followed  by  so-called  rheumatic  or  chronic 
laminitis,  suppuration,  which  is  indicated  by  continued  pain, 
or  even  by  necrosis  and  septic-inflammation,  wliich  are  usually 
followed  by  loss  of  the  hoof  and  death. 

The  examination  should  be  commenced  by  walking  the 
horse,  when  it  will  be  seen  whether  the  animal  is  lame  at  all, 
and  if  so,  on  which  limb.  The  statements  of  the  groom  are 
not  always  to  be  relied  on,  nor  (after  exercise)  is  the  lameness 
always  so  marked  as  to  be  seen  at  the  first  glance ;  sometimes 
it  is  only  visible  at  a  trot  or  on  hard  pavement.  The  horse 
when  walked  or  trotted,  especially  on  hard  ground,  will  be 
seen  to  go  short  and  timidly  on  the  lame  foot,  the  limb  not 
being  extended  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  diseased  foot  being 
lifted  from  the  ground  more  rapidly  than  the  sound  one,  and 
the  weight  of  the  body  thrown  more  rapidly  and  with  more 
force   on   the   normal  foot.     The   body,  therefore,  appears   to 


318 


INFLAMMATION   OF   THE   HOOF. 


sink  towards  the  sound  .side.  In  short,  the  horse  nods.  Once 
the  lame  limb  is  discovered  the  foot  may  be  examined. 

The  painful  spot  may  be  only  of  small  size,  and,  therefore, 
the  examination  should  be  thorough.  Specially  formed  tongs 
have  been  made  for  this  purpose,  the  smaller  of  which  (fig.  310) 
is  for  the  examination  of  parts  close  to  the  circumference  of 
the  sole,  the  larger  for  parts  further  removed  and  for  the 
examination  of  the  joint  and  navicular  bone.  The  farrier's 
ordinary  pincers  serve  every  purpose,  however. 

It  requires  considerable  care  to  distinguish  between  the 
natural  sensitiveness  of  the  horse  and  the  pain  caused  by 
disease.     Rough,  violent  use  of   the  pincers  must   always  be 


Figs.  310,  311. — Special  pincers  for  examining  diseased  feet, 

avoided,  for  severe  pressure  will  produce  pain  even  in  the 
soundest  hoof.  The  same  force  must  be  applied  at  each  spot, 
the  hoof  being  tested  at  short  intervals  over  its  entire  surface, 
as  the  diseased  spot  and  corresponding  area  of  tenderness  are 
often  very  restricted. 

The  degree  of  pressure  should  be  adapted  to  the  condition  of 
the  sole.  When  the  parts  are  thin  and  yielding,  very  little 
pressure  produces  pain,  and  the  tender  spot  is  quite  sufficiently 
indicated  by  slight  quivering  of  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder 
and  upper  limb. 

Sometimes  the  pincers  fail;  the  suspected  spot  may  then  be 
tested  by  light  blows  with  the  hammer.  Increased  local 
warmth  sometimes  gives  information,  which   can  be  confirmed 


COMBINATION  FARHIER'S  TOOL. 


The  tool  illustrated  combines  in  itself  pincers,  hammer,  and  buffer.  "'As  it 
occupies  no  more  space  than  an  ordinary  pair  of  pincers,  it  may  be  carried  with- 
out inconvenience,  and  is  useful  for  removing  a  shoe  in  an  emergency.  By  remov- 
ing the  nut,  the  hammer  and  buffer  can  be  used  to  cut  the  clenches,  and  by 
replacing  it  a  pair  of  pincers  for  removing  the  shoe  and  '  trying  round '  the  foot 
is  obtained. 


[To  face  p.  318. 


EXAMINATION   OF   HOOF   FOR  CORNS,   ETC.  319 

by  the  use  of  the  Immmer.  The  condition  of  the  lateral 
cartilages  should  be  noted  and  the  individual  joints  of  the  foot 
tested  by  passive  movement  and  by  manipulation  to  detect  new 
growths  or  excessive  sensitiveness.  If,  in  spite  of  all  this,  no 
satisfactory  indication  of  disease  is  forthcoming,  the  liexor 
tendons  may  be  examined  by  running  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger along  their  course  and  noting  any  thickened  or  painful 
spot. 

The  causes  are  numerous  and  varied.  They  may  be  divided 
into  (1)  congenital,  (2)  mechanical,  (3)  thermal,  (4)  chemical, 
and  (5)  specific.  The  first  three,  however,  are  of  chief  import- 
ance. Congenital  causes  are  to  be  found  in  faulty  conforma- 
tion of  the  limb  and  irregularities  in  the  condition  of  the  hoof 
causing  unequal  distribution  of  pressure.  Mechanical  causes 
are  numerous ;  amongst  them  must  be  ranked,  errors  in  trim- 
ming the  foot,  weakening  the  hoof,  bad  fitting  (causing  local 
pressure),  dryness  of  the  hoof,  unskilful  or  excessive  driving, 
as  well  as  direct  wounds  and  bruises  of  the  sensitive  structures 
of  the  hoof.  Amongst  thermal  causes  is  burning  of  the  toe 
during  fitting.  Chemical  and  specific  causes  are  rarer.  The 
fact  that  the  corium  lies  between  the  hard  horny  box  and  the 
equally  hard  os  pedis  explains  the  frequency  with  which  it  is 
bruised  and  inflamed. 

The  front  feet  (especially  in  their  inner  half)  are  more  often 
diseased  than  the  hind.  This  results  from  the  greater  weight 
they  carry  and  the  drying  influences  to  which  they  are  exposed. 
In  shoes  with  heels  or  heels  and  toes,  one  heel  is  apt  to  be 
higher  than  the  other,  and  as  the  foot  is  then  raised  unnaturally 
high,  any  slight  error  in  form  or  fitting  is  exaggerated,  the 
joints  are  strained,  and  the  hoof  itself  sufiers. 

Treatment — The  chief  object  is  to  remove  the  cause,  per- 
manently if  possible. 

The  shoe  is  carefully  taken  off,  and  its  form,  position,  and 
bearing  surface  examined.  By  replacing  it  for  the  moment  we 
note  whether  it  fits  at  all  points  or  not.  The  hoof  is  then 
carefully  examined  in  every  part ;  the  white  line  especially 
should  receive  attention.  After  removing  a  thin  slice  from  the 
white  line  and  neighbouring  parts  the  form  and  direction  of 
the  nail  holes  can  be  seen.  Any  superfluous  horn  is  then 
removed    from    the  wall    and    sole.     The    frog    is   cautiously 


320  INFLAMMATION    OF   THE    HOOF. 

trimmed,  partly  to  assist  the  action  of  poultices,  should  such  be 
required,  partly  to  make  the  horny  capsule  more  yielding  (and 
to  discover  injury  caused  by  gathered  nail,  etc.).  If  the  sole  is- 
coloured  yellow,  yellowish-green,  yellowish-red,  red,  or  pink, 
we  know  that  blood  has  been,  extravasated  and  has  penetrated 
the  horn.  The  cutting  out  of  the  diseased  hoof  should  follow 
the  examination  with  pincers,  and  the  amount  removed  should 
not  be  sufficient  to  alter  tiie  direction  of  the  limb,  nor  the 
manner  of  tread. 

To  limit  the  local  inflammation  the  hoof  should  be  kept  cool 
and  soft.  The  difficultv  is  less  to  cool  it  than  to  soften  the 
horn,  and  so,  by  relieving  pressure  on  the  inflamed  spot,  to 
favour  free  circulation  of  blood.  Linseed-meal  poultices,  to 
which  is  added  some  antiseptic,  act  most  effectually,  especially 
when  frequently  mmstened  with  water.  A  piece  of  sacking 
20  to  30  inches  square  is  taken,  the  poultice  placed  in  the 
centre,  the  foot  placed  on  the  poultice,  and  the  sides  of  the 
sacking  drawn  upwards  and  fastened  around  the  coronet  by  a 
bandage  or  straw  band,  which  impedes  the  flow  of  blood  much 
less  than  cords  or  straps.  The  portions  of  sacking  which  pro- 
ject above  the  straw  band  are  then  turned  downwards  and 
fastened  securely  below  the  straw  band  by  means  of  a  tape. 
To  thoroughly  soften  the  hard,  dry  hoof  it  is  necessary  to  leave 
the  poultice  forty-eight  hours  in  position  and  to  moisten  it  freely 
with  water  during  that  time.  In  fact  it  does  no  harm  to  leave 
the  poultice  in  position  until  the  pain  has  greatly  diminished. 
But  this  method  must  not  he  resorted  to  when  pus  formcdion  has 
oecurred,  as  it  favours  discharge  of  pus  at  the  coronet  and  the 
formation  of  '  quittor.'  After  removing  the  poultice  the  hoof 
is  washed  clean,  the  shoe  replaced,  if  necessary,  and  the  hoof 
rubbed  with  vaseline  or  fat.  Instead  of  the  poultice  described, 
six  or  eight  thicknesses  of  wet  linen  may  be  wound  round  the 
hoof  and  retained  in  position  by  a  leather  or  felt  boot. 

The  onset  of  suppuration  is  notified  by  severe,  continued 
pain  and  marked  pulsation  of  the  digital  arteries.  To  provide 
free  drainage  for  the  pus,  the  most  painful  spot  has  first  to  be 
discovered.  The  sole  should  then  be  thinned  all  round  the 
painful  spot  until  the  sensitive  structures  are  reached,  the  bear- 
ing surface  of  the  wall  being  left  intact.  For  this  purpose  a 
'  searcher,'  t.c,  a  special  knife  with  a  slender  blade,  or  the  in- 


TREATMENT  OF  SUPPURATING  CORN. 


321 


strument  shown  in  fig.  312  may  be  used.  The  margins  of 
the  opening,  so  far  as  they  are  formed  by  the  sole,  should  be 
thinned  until  they  yield  to  the  pressure  of  the  finger.  If  pus 
be  discovered  the  parts  are  next  flooded  with  warm  5  per  cent, 
carbolic,  creosote,  or  creolin  solution,  and  covered  with  carbolic, 
sublimate,  iodoform,  or  salicylic  wool.  There  is  some  advantage 
in  afterwards  painting  the  parts  with  a  resinous  tincture,  like 
tincture  of  myrrh  or  the  compound  tincture  of  myrrh  and  aloes. 
The  dressing  is  held  in  position  by  broad  strips  of  gauze  and  a 


Fig.  312. — Special  '  searcher '  used  in  giving  exit  to  pus, 

shoe  with  leather  sole  applied.  A  better  way  to  fix  dressings 
in  position  is  by  thrusting  two  thin  strips  of  wood  or  hoop  iron 
cross-wise  between  the  dressing  and  shoe. 

If  no  pus  be  found,  cold  poultices  or  baths  may  be  continued. 

The  colour  of  the  pus  is  of  importance.  A  grey  fluid  dis- 
charge is  a  result  of  superficial  inflammation  of  the  corium;  a 
condition  which  readily  yields  to  treatment.  The  production  of 
yellowish  thick  pus,  however,  even  in  very  small  quantities, 
points  to  inflammation  of  the  deeper  lying  layers  of  the  corium 
and  to  a  more  obstinate  condition.  Under  such  circumstances 
the  advice  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  should  be  sought. 


322 


INFLAMMATION   OF  THE    HOOF. 


.The  shoe  is  made  wider  or  longer  in  the  diseased  region 
than  at  the  points  opposite.  If,  for  example,  the  inner  heel  is 
painful,  the  inner  heel  of  the  shoe  should  be  a  little  longer  and 
a  little  wider  than  its  fellow,  and  vice  versa.  To  prevent  the 
shoe  pressing  on  the  painful  spot,  the  wall  is  slightly  rasped 
away  around  that  point.  But  if  an  ordinary  shoe  is  so  fitted 
that  one  side  of  the  hoof  is  free  of  pressure,  it  will  be  noted 
that  during  movement  the  hoof  approaches,  and  actually  comes 
in  contact  with,  the  shoe  at  that  point,  and  with  a  rapidity  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  flatness  of  the  hoof.  The  hoof  springs, 
in  fact.  Under  such  circumstances  there  must  inevitably  be 
pressure  upon  the  diseased  spot,  and,  therefore,  in  flat  feet, 
ordinary  shoes  should  never  be  used.  In  strong,  upright  feet, 
on  the  other  hand,  this  '  springing '  is  much  less,  the  heels 
descend  comparatively  little,  because  the  posterior  half  of  the 
hoof  bears  much  less  weight  than  in  flat  feet. 

The  bar  shoe  (fig.  313),  so  called  because  its  heels  are  united 
by  a  transverse  bar,  is  of  the  greatest  service  for  injured  or 
diseased  feet.     It  enables  the  frog  to  assist  in  supporting  the 


Fig.  313.— Bar  shoe,  seen  from  above. 

body-weight,  thus  relieving  the  wall  to  a  corresponding  extent, 
and  whilst  with  ordinary  shoes  the  frog  is  almost  always 
functionally  passive,  the  bar  shoe  restores  it  more  or  less  to  its 
normal  function.  In  heavy  horses  with  weak  feet  this  relief  is 
of  great  importance. 

A  few  practical  examples  will  confirm  this.     We  may  take 
the  action  of  the  ordinary  seated  shoe,  having  a  narrow  bearing 


'  SHOEING   AFTER   CORN^  323 

surface  covering  that  of  the  wall  but  not  extending  to  any 
portion  whatever  of  the  sole.  In  horses  with  narrow  upright 
hoofs  and  in  those  working  on  soft  ground  this  shoe  is  quite 
satisfactory,  but  is  liable,  under  opposite  conditions,  to  produce 
separation  of  the  wall.  By  increasing  the  width  of  the  surfaces 
of  contact  between  shoe  and  hoof,  or  by  applying  a  bar  shoe, 
this  is,  however,  entirely  avoided. 

In  horses  with  weak  heels  the  ordinary  shoe  is  apt  to  cause 
the  heel  to  turn  inwards  and  its  use  to  be  followed  by  pro- 
duction of  corns  and  contraction  of  the  hoof.  The  cause  is  the 
shape  of  the  shoe,  which  relieves  the  frog  and  sole  of  weight 
at  the  expense  of  the  heels,  which  yield,  bend  inwards,  and 
cause  lameness.  The  lameness  disappears,  when,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  a  bar  shoe,  the  frog  is  forced  to  sustain  a  portion  of 
the  weight.  In  sandcrack  and  cracks  of  the  bar,  this  form  of 
shoe  supports  the  posterior  part  of  the  foot,  and  by  increasing 
its  functional  activity  encourages  growth  and  expansion.  Where 
a  hoof  shows  more  than  one  crack  the  action  of  the  bar  shoe 
is  assisted  by  applying  a  thick  leather  and  padding  the  space 
between  it  and  the  sole  of  the  foot  with  tow.  A  portion  of  the 
weight  is  then  borne  by  the  frog  and  by  the  sole  itself.  A 
bar  shoe  can  always  be  applied,  even  when  one  quarter  or 
quarter  and  heel  are  much  broken,  provided  the  frog  be  sound 
and  fairly  developed.  Should  the  frog  be  healthy,  but  small, 
it  may  be  built  up  by  applying  gutta-percha  or  the  special 
cement  later  described. 

In  case  of  the  frog  being  affected  with  thrush,  the  pro- 
cedure is  as  follows  : — After  the  shoe  is  fitted,  all  loose  pieces 
of  horn  are  removed  by  a  searcher,  the  parts  thoroughly  washed 
with  water,  then  with  5  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid, 
creosote,  or  creolin,  the  entire  ground  surface  of  the  hoof 
smeared  with  wood  tar  or  Venice  turpentine,  a  pad  of  tow 
applied,  a  leather  sole  fitted  over  all  and  the  shoe  nailed  on. 
The  bar  shoe  should  not  be  employed  in  navicular  disease, 
double  side-bones,  or  in  the  case  of  picked-up  nails  (which 
almost  always  enter  the  frog). 

The  bar  shoe  permits  any  part  of  the  bearing  surface  of  the 
hoof  to  be  left  uncovered  and  to  be  reheved  of  pressure  without 
stoppage  of  work.  The  entire  frog  is  capable  of  bearing  weight, 
but  the  posterior  part  is  best  suited  for  the  purpose,  and  there 
the  bar  should  take  its  bearing. 


324  INFLAMMATION   OF   THE    HOOF. 


CONCAVE  BAE  FOEE  SHOE  (Fig.  314). 
Made  in  concave  tool  from  g-  X  ^  inch  iron. 

This  is  a  bar  shoe  for  hunters  suffering  from  sandcrack  or 
any  of  the  other  conditions  in  which  bar  shoes  seem  indicated. 
Although  it  is  often  stated  that  bar  shoes  are  inappHcable  to 
hunters  as  they  are  sure  to  be  torn  off,  the  experience  of  the 
authors  is  to  the  contrary,  and  Mr  Wheatley  has  on  many 
occasions  appKed  them  with  success. 

Special  precautions,  however,  are  necessary.  The  shoe  must 
be  drawn  from  the  centre  of  the  quarter  towards  the  bar  until  the 
extreme  posterior  part  is  only  about  -|-  inch  in  thickness,  and  the 
bar  must  not  project  even  a  fraction  of  an  inch  behind  the  heels. 

To  obtain  the  best  results  the  heels  must  be  fitted  '  full '  on 
either  side,  and  the  upper  outer  edge  hot-rasped  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  foot,  so  as  to  present  an  oblique  bevelled  margin 
about  X6  ^^  i^  '^^'^^^  wide.  There  is  then  no  danger  of  the  shoe 
being  trodden  off. 


Fig.  314.  —Concave  bar  fore  shoe.     Made  in  concave  tool  from  #  x  I  inch  iron 


[To  face  p.  324. 


Figs.  315,  316. — Fullered  bar  hind  shoe  (seated  around  toe).     Made  from 

I  X  f  inch  iron. 

To  face  "p.  325.] 


BAK   SHOKS.  325 


FULLERED  BAR  HIND  SHOE  (SEATED 
AROUND  TOE)  (Figs.  315,  316). 

Made  from  J  X  -f  iron. 

This  is  a  special  shoe  for  harness  or  riding  horses  with 
*  dropped  sole '  in  a  hind  foot ;  it  can  also  be  used  for  the 
treatment  of  '  seedy-toe,'  as  the  diseased  parts  can  be  dressed 
through  the  seating  without  the  shoe  being  removed. 

Clips  are  drawn  on  either  side  of  the  toe,  because  in  many 
cases  there  is  not  sufficient  horn  at  the  toe  to  permit  of  their 
being  placed  there,  and  also  because  clips  in  this  position  allow 
the  shoe  to  be  placed  further  back  if  required. 

The  shoe  is  shghtly  cradled,  i.e.,  it  is  thinner  at  the  toe  and 
heel  than  at  the  quarter,  a  formation  which  enables  the  animal 
to  place  more  weight  on  the  back  of  the  foot,  thereby  relieving 
the  toe.     In  many  cases  this  is  a  very  important  consideration. 

The  toe  of  the  shoe  is  widened  as  well  as  seated-out,  so  as  to 
give  ample  '  cover  '  to  the  injured  or  diseased  parts. 


326  INFLAMMATION^   OF   THE   HOOF. 


FULLERED  SEATED  BAE  FORE  SHOE  (Fig.  317). 

Made  from  -g  X  -;V  itt^ch  iron. 

This  is  the  ordinary  form  of  har  shoe  for  harness  horses. 
Among  the  conditions  in  which  its  use  is  indicated  are : — 

1.  Corns.  Here  it  reheves  the  heels  of  pressure  by  imposing 
a  proportion  of  the  weight  on  the  frog.  A  bar  shoe  can  also  be 
fitted  *  fuller  '  at  the  heels  than  an  ordinary  shoe,  and  hence 
is  less  likely  to  produce  pressure  on  the  seat  of  corn  than  a 
narrow  heeled  shoe. 

2.  Flat  or  dropped  sole  following  laminitis.  The  heels  of 
the  shoe  should  be  thinned,  or  the  heels  and  toe  also  may  be 
thinned,  the  quarters  being  left  of  full  strength.  This  '  cradling ' 
of  the  shoe  much  improves  the  gait  of  horses  with  dropped  sole. 

3.  Flat  feet  with  weak,  low  heels.  By  giving  a  broad  bearing 
surface  at  the  heels  and  by  transferring  weight  to  the  frog, 
attrition  between  the  heels  of  foot  and  of  the  shoe  is  lessened, 
and  an  opportunity  is  given  for  the  parts  to  grow  and  become 
stronger. 

4.  Sandcrack  and  seedy  toe.  It  is  possible  that  in  the 
case  of  sandcrack  steady  pressure  on  the  posterior  parts  of  the 
foot  lessens  the  chance  of  the  crack  opening,  and,  by  retaining 
the  edges  of  the  crack  in  apposition,  favours  the  growth  of  a 
(new)  sound  wall. 

Wherever  there  is  any  painful  affection  about  the  toe  of  the 
foot  and  the  horse  goes  on  his  heels,  bar  shoes  are  useful.  They 
should  be  fitted  '  full '  at  the  heels,  and  either  '  boxed  up  '  or 
'  hot-rasped '  up  to  the  heel  of  the  foot.  This  is  more  impor- 
tant than  fitting  them  so  long  at  the  heel,  as  is  customary. 


Fig.  317. — Fullered  seated  bar  fore  shoe.     Made  from  |  x  ^  inch  iron. 


{To  face  p.  326. 


Fig.  318. — Fullered  seated  three-quarter  bar  fore  shoe  (for  harness  horse). 

Made  from  5  x  A  incli  iron. 


Fig.  319. — Stamped  bar  hind  shoe  (for  cart  horse), 

Ij  X  ^  inch  iron. 

To  face  2?.  327.] 


]\rade  from 


BAK   SII0E8.  327 


FULLEliED     SEATED     THEEE-QUAETEK     BAE     FORE 
SHOE  (FOE  HAENESS  HOESE)  (Fig.  318). 

Made  from  -g  X  J  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  intended  for  a  fleshy,  low-heeled,  weak  foot,  or 
for  a  foot  with  dropped  sole  and  with  a  corn  in  the  inner  heel. 
In  cases  of  suppurating  corn  it  allows  of  the  parts  being 
efficiently  poulticed,  and  in  sandcrack  or  false  quarter  invol- 
ving the  extreme  back  portion  of  the  inside  quarter  is  very 
useful. 

The  back  part  of  the  inside  quarter  of  shoe  must  be  fitted 
'  full,'  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  cause  the  hoof  to  split  away  at 
this  point,  especially  as  hoofs  affected  with  sandcrack  are 
usually  very  brittle. 

The  clip  may  be  at  the  toe  or  outer  quarter,  or  a  clip  may 
be  placed  at  both  points.  The  outer  quarter  is  recommended, 
however,  as  the  preferable  spot. 


STAMPED  BAE  HIND   SHOE  (FOE  CAET  HOESE) 

(Fig.  319). 

Made  from  l^x^  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  intended  for  cases  where  the  hoof  shows  a  '  false- 
quarter  '  inside,  and  where  the  horse  has  sustained  an  injury  to 
the  inner  heel,  which  must  be  relieved -of  weight.  The  inside 
nail  holes  are  therefore  placed  opposite  the  only  sound  part  of 
the  foot,  viz.,  that  close  to  the  toe. 

The  clips  are  at  the  toe  and  outer  quarter. 


328  INFLAMMATION   OF  THE   HOOF. 


Substitutes  for  Horn. 

De  Fay's  hoof  cement  was  the  first  material  introduced 
for  the  treatment  of  cracks,  etc.,  in  the  wall.  It  consists  of 
purified  gutta-percha  and  gum  ammoniacum.  The  gutta-percha 
is  softened  in  water,  divided  into  pieces  the  size  of  a  hazel 
nut,  mixed  with  an  equal  proportion  of  gum  ammoniacum  and 
melted  in  a  vessel  of  tinned  iron  over  a  slow  fire.  The  mass  is 
slowly  stirred  until  thoroughly  mixed,  when  it  has  the  colour 
and  appearance  of  chocolate.  Lastly,  it  is  formed  into  sticks. 
Thus  prepared,  it  is  hard  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  is, 
therefore,  suited  for  use  in  summer ;  softer  mixtures  for  winter 
use  can  be  prepared  by  increasing  the  proportion  of  gutta- 
percha. 

De  Fay's  artificial  horn  closely  resembles  natural  horn  in 
consistence  and  toughness.  It  can  readily  be  softened  and 
moulded,  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  adheres  very  firmly  to  the 
hoof.  It  may  be  employed  to  build  up  too  low  a  wall  or  to 
replace  lost  portions;  to  close  sandcracks  and  thus  prevent 
entrance  of  dirt ;  in  the  various  forms  of  dropped  sole  to  raise 
the  bearing  surface  of  the  wall  in  seedy  toe,  or,  before  applying 
a  bar  shoe,  to  build  up  the  frog  if  atrophied  and  functionally 
inactive. 

It  should  not,  however,  be  resorted  to  in  cases  of  loose  wall, 
because,  after  hardening,  it  acts  as  a  wedge  and  increases  the 
separation.  In  use  it  is  warmed  till  fluid,  and  applied  with  a 
spatula  to  the  part  to  be  filled  up  or  raised.  To  smooth  off 
the  surface  the  spatula  is  moderately  heated  and  once  more 
passed  over  it. 

Before  applying  the  composition,  the  horn  should  be  freed 
from  grease,  thoroughly  dried  and  slightly  roughened.  To 
remove  grease,  the  parts  are  rubbed  over  with  a  few  drops  of 
sulphuric  ether  or  benzolin  applied  on  a  pledget  of  tow.  As 
repeated  heating  injures  the  qualities  of  the  mass,  it  is  advis- 
able to  melt  only  the  exact  amount  needed  on  each  occasion. 

Until  recently  this  was  the  best  known  material  for  repair- 
ing and  replacing  horn,  but  of  late  another  and  better  material 
has  been  produced.  It  is  a  German  preparation,  and  is  termed 
*  huflederkitt.'     As  purchased,  it  resembles  leather,  is  reddish- 


HORN   SUBSTITUTES.  329 

brown  in  colour,  and  appears  to  consist  largely  of  gutta-percha 
with  the  addition  of  some  india-rubber  and  inorganic  materials. 
It  is  very  elastic  and  tough,  can  be  warmed  either  in  water  or 
over  a  fire,  w^hen  it  becomes  plastic ;  on  cooling,  it  again 
assumes  its  hard,  leather-like  condition,  without  losing  the 
form  given  it.  It  may  be  used  in  any  part  of  the  hoof  where 
additions  are  required.  As  compared  with  De  Fay's  artificial 
horn  it  possesses  the  following  advantages : — 1.  After  melting 
it  solidifies  more  rapidly  than  De  Fay's  preparation.  2.  In 
cooling  it  remains  firmly  fixed  to  the  horn  wall  and  does  not 
shrink,  whilst  De  Fay's  mixture  contracts,  and  is  apt  to  lose  its 
hold.  3.  It  can  be  melted  as  frequently  as  required  without 
losing  its  qualities,  whilst  De  Fay's  cement  rapidly  deteriorates. 
4.  It  requires  no  special  preparation,  like  the  removal  of 
grease  or  the  roughening  and  drying  of  the  horn,  though  such 
precautions  are  perhaps  still  advisable. 

In  all  cases  where  De  Fay's  artificial  horn  can  be  used  with 
advantage  this  preparation  may  now  be  substituted  for  it.  In 
Germany  it  is  largely  used  instead  of  vulcanised  rubber  or 
rope  in  special  grooved  shoes  designed  to  diminish  slipping  on 
smooth  pavements.  It  has  also  been  employed  as  a  dressing 
for  hoofs.  In  this  case  the  under  surface  of  the  hoof  is  care- 
fully cleaned  and  disinfected,  and  the  melted  '  huflederkitt ' 
applied  with  a  spatula.  The  frog  may  be  covered  or  left  ex- 
posed. If  the  space  be  filled  up  as  far  as  the  bearing  surface 
of  the  shoe,  the  counter-pressure  of  the  ground  is  transmitted 
very  perfectly  to  all  parts  of  the  sole,  etc.,  whilst  at  the  same 
time  slipping  on  asphalt  or  stone  pavements  is  minimised. 


CHAPTEE    II. 

DEFORMITIES  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  HOOF. 

1.  Flat  Sole. 

A  FLAT  sole  is  one  which  exhibits  no  archino;  towards  the 
centre,  but  lies  more  or  less  evenly  in  the  same  plane  as  the 
wall,  the  latter  being  usually  very  oblique.  The  condition  is 
commoner  in  front  than  in  hind  feet,  and  is  frequently  con- 


FlG.  320.— Section  of  flat  hoof  with  -weak  sole,    a  shows  weakened  sole  ;  6,  weakening  of  the 

union  ))etween  wall  and  sole. 

genital,  especially  in  horses  reared  on  soft  marshy  ground. 
It  may  also  be  produced  by  paring  away  too  much  of  the  sole 
around  its  union  with  the  wall  (figs.  320  and  321),  and  keeping 
the  hoof  continually  moist.      Apart  from  congenital  conditions 


i'lG.  321.— Special  shoe  for  above  foot. 

the  most  frequent  cause,  however,  is  the  use  of  shoes  which 
raise  the  frog  clear  of  the  ground,  and  thus  throw  the  entire 
weight  on  the  wall.  On  account  of  its  oblique  course,  the 
wall  is  then  unable  to  sustain  the  load,  and  the  os  pedis^ 
especially    in    its    posterior     parts,    gradually    descends ;     the 


FLAT   SOLE.  331 

descent  being  greater  on  the  side  which  bears  the  greater 
weight.  The  union  between  the  sensitive  and  horny  structures 
is  exposed  to  severe  strain,  the  laminae  gradually  enlarge  and 
yield,  and  the  os  pedis  presses  on  the  sensitive  and  horny  soles 
until  it  finally  thrusts  them  downwards.  This  is  followed  by 
changes  in  the  sole  and  atrophy  of  the  os  pedis,  best  marked 
at  its  wings  and  sharp  plantar  margin.  The  more  developed 
the  atrophy  the  more  convex  does  the  horny  sole  appear. 
Change  in  position  of  the  os  pedis,  again,  produces  distortion  of 
the  coronary  band  and  displacement  of  its  papilke.  This  gives 
rise  to  the  formation  of  rings  and  splits  in  the  wall,  while, 
owing  to  its  oblique  position,  the  wall  itself  tends  to  bend  out- 
wards at  the  bearing  surface.  The  more  oblique  the  wall  and 
the  heavier  the  horse  the  more  rapidly  do  such  changes  pro- 
ceed. When  the  toe  is  much  turned  out  they  only  affect  the 
inner  half  of  the  foot,  but  then  occur  very  rapidly.  The  flat- 
soled  hoof  grows  chiefly  forwards  and  outwards,  and  is  hence 
very  liable  to  suffer  from  separation  of  the  wall.  When  the 
heels  are  weak  and  the  sole  flat  the  heels  turn  inwards ;  when 
the  hoof  is  less  spread  the  bars  may  grow  over  the  posterior 
portions  of  the  sole  :  in  either  case  corns  are  common. 

It  is  impossible  to  cii^rc  this  flat  condition  of  the  sole. 
Possibility  of  improvement  exists  when  the  condition  is  not 
far  advanced,  when  the  horn  fibres  are  fine  and  tough,  and 
the  animal  is  of  light  weight,  but,  as  a  rule,  all  the  unfavour- 
able factors  are  combined.  The  animal  is  then  absolutelv  un- 
suitable  for  rapid  work  on  hard  roads,  and  can  be  employed 
only  at  a  walk  or  in  the  fields. 

Something  may  be  done  to  improve  matters  and  prevent  the 
changes  which  have  taken  place  becoming  aggravated.  The 
sole,  being  very  thin,  should  be  trimmed  as  little  as  possible. 
Loose  fragments  of  horn  may  be  removed,  the  bars,  if  over- 
lapping the  posterior  portions  of  the  sole,  cut  back,  and  the 
bearing  margin  of  the  wall  levelled  with  the  rasp.  The  outer 
edge  of  the  wall,  especially  at  the  toe,  should  be  well  rounded 
off,  and  unduly  convex  portions  as  far  as  possible  levelled. 
The  frog  and  sole  must  be  spared.  Where  the  position  of  the 
limb  is  normal  and  the  horn  of  good  quality  an  ordinary  flat, 
wide-webbed,  well-seated  shoe  with  a  broad  bearing  surface,  and 
made  from  thick  iron,  is  suitable ;  the  heels  should  be  some- 


332 


DEFORMITIES   AND   DISEASES   OF   THE   HOOF. 


what  long.  A  leather  sole  is  useful,  and  the  frog  should  be 
allowed  to  come  to  the  ground.  In  all  other  cases,  as  when 
the  horn  is  of  bad  quality,  or  when  corns,  contraction,  sand 
crack,  separation  of  the  wall,  etc.,  are  present,  bar  shoes  are 
preferable.  The  bearing  surface  should  be  as  large  as  possible, 
so  that  the  weight  may  be  distributed  over  the  entire  foot. 
The  wall,  white  line,  and  outer  margin  of  the  sole  should  all 
assist.  Where  the  wall  projects  below  the  sole,  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  shoe  may  be  given  a  slight  cant  inwards  (fig. 
322,  h),  but  a  horizontal  bearing  surface  should  be  preferred 
when  the  wall  has  grown  down  again.      The  toe-clip  can  be 


Fig.  322. — Transverse  section  through  a  flat-soled  hoof  with  shoe.  At  a  the  wall  is  suffi- 
ciently high  and  the  surface  of  the  shoe  is  therefore  flat.  At  h  the  wall  is  not  high 
enough  and  the  bearing  surface  of  the  shoe  is  therefore  canted  inwards. 

let  into  the  foot  almost  as  far  as  the  white  line  without  injury 
— sometimes  several  clips  are  required ;  the  direction  of  the 
nail  holes  must  in  all  such  hoofs  be  governed  by  the  direction 
of  the  wall. 

The  space  caused  by  separations  in  the  wall  may  be  filled 
with  tar  or  Venice  turpentine.  De  Fay's  hoof  cement  mass 
should  never  be  used,  because  as  it  hardens  it  acts  like  a 
wedge,  and  causes  further  separation.  Two  quarter-clips  may 
be  raised  opposite  the  point  of  the  frog,  and  will  be  found 
very  useful  in  retaining  the  shoe  in  position.  To  protect  the 
sole,  it  may  be  smeared  with  Venice  turpentine,  pitch,  or  soft 
resin.  Where  the  wall  and  frog  are  defective,  a  leather  sole 
can  be  applied.  If,  however,  the  frog  is  large,  and  projects 
below  the  heels,  the  cross  piece  of  the  bar  shoe  may  be  allowed 
to  bear  on  it,  or  an  ordinary  flat  shoe  provided  with  low  heels 
may  be  applied. 

The  condition  just  discussed  may  be  still  more  aggravated. 
The  sole  is  then  distinctly  '  dropped '  or  convex.  This  con- 
dition may  involve  either  one  or  both  sides  of  the  hoof ;  in 


FLAT   ANr)   '  DROPPED      SOLE. 


333 


fig.  323  only  one-half  of  the  sole,  the  inner,  is  so  deformed. 
The  wall  generally  exhibits  rings  and  furrows,  and  is  more  or 
less  depressed  at  the  centre,  its  outhne  being  concave.  In  the 
unshod  hoof  the  frog  and  horny  sole  then  take  the  entire 
weight,  hence  animals  with  convex  sole  can  neither  go  nor 
stand  continuouslv  without  shoes. 

The  vva\'y  appearance  sometimes  shown,  which  reaches  from 


ISiliis 


Fia.  323.— Left  front  foot  with  inside  half  of  sole  '  dropped '  oi"  convex,  seen  from  below,  in 
front  and  in  section,  a-h,  direction  of  section ;  c,  broken  wall ;  d,  '  dropped '  portion, 
of  sole  ;  e,  os  pedis  atrophied  by  pressure ;  /,  depression  extending  from  coronet  to 
ground  ;  g,  concave  inner  quarter. 

the  coronet  to  the  bearing  surface,  and  the  form  and  condition: 
of  the  hoof,  point  strongly  to  the  displacement  of  the  os  pedis. 

Dropped  sole  may  result  from  a  continuation  of  the  process 
which  produces  flat  sole,  or  from  laminitis.  In  the  former  case- 
one  lateral  half  of  the  sole  is  usually  deformed,  and  the  white 
line  is  not  increased  in  breadth ;  in  the  latter  the  convexity 
usually  appears  in  front  of  the  point  of  the  frog,  the  white 
line  is  perceptibly  broader,  and  the  rings  on  the  wall  are  close 
together  at  the  toe,  but  diverge  as  they  extend  towards  the 
heels. 

In  general,  the  same  treatment  is  appropriate  in  convex  as 
in  flat  sole.  When  the  sole  projects  so  far  below  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  wall  that  it  would  touch  the  ground  even  after 
the  application  of  a  thick  bar  shoe,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
build  up  the  wall  with  an  artificial  composition,  and  to  secure 
the  sole  from  contact  with  the  ground  by  the  use  of  toe-pieces 
and  heels.  Screws  are  then  very  useful  in  conjunction  with 
bar  shoes. 

On  account  of  the  brittleness  of  the  wall,  as  few  nails  as- 
possible  should  be  employed,  and  to  secure  the  shoe  it  is  often 
well  to  form  a  quarter-clip  at  either  side.      The  position  of  the 


334  DEFORjriTIES   AND   DISEASES   OF   THE    HOOF. 

nails  should  be  slightly  changed  at  each  shoeing.     Horses  with 
convex  soles  are,  of  course,  quite  useless  for  rapid  work. 

To  prevent  the  sole  being  bruised  the  shoe  must  be  well 
seated  out,  and,  unless  the  case  is  very  aggravated,  a  leather 
sole  applied.  To  save  the  hoof  being  softened  by  long  con- 
tact with  moisture  during  wet  w^eather,  a  hoof  ointment  should 
be  used. 


STAMPED  FOKE  SHOE  (FOR  CAET  HORSE). 
THE  'QUOIT'  SHOE  (Fig.  324). 

Made  from  1-g^  X  -g-  inch  iron. 

In  making  this- shoe  the  outer  margin  of  the  web  is  thinned 
down  to  ^  or  |-  inch,  the  inner  margin  being  left  of  the  full  ^ 
inch  strength. 

The  shoe  has  been  recommended  for  cases  of  laminitis  where 
exudation  is  occurring  and  there  is  danger  of  the  sole  becoming 
convex,  but  where  pain  is  slight.  Some  practitioners  consider 
this  condition  is  best  treated  by  applying  a  '  quoit '  shoe  and 
steadily  working  the  animal  on  soft  ground. 


STAMPED  FORE  SHOE  (FOR  CART  HORSE)  'SET' 
AROUND  OUTER  MARGIN  (Fig.  325). 

Made  from  l-J-  X  |  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  '  set '  around  the  outer  margin  of  the  ground 
surface  and  is  deeply  seated-out  on  the  foot  surface,  and  has 
two  calkins.  The  *  set '  tool  resembles  a  single-faced  hammer. 
It  is  held  and  applied  in  the  same  way  as  a  stamp  or  fuller  ;  the 
result  of  *  setting '  is  well  shown  in  the  illustration. 

This  shoe  is  intended  for  a  horse  with  very  convex  (dropped) 
soles  and  weak  feet  and  large  frogs. 


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To  face  p.  335.] 


SHOES  FOR  CART-HORSE   WITH    'DROPPED'   SOLES.  335 


STAMPED  HIND  SHOE  (FOE  CART  HORSE) 

(Figs.  326,  327). 

Made  from  ij  X  |-  inch  iron. 

Being  intended  for  a  foot  with  '  dropped  sole '  or  '  seedy  toe  ' 
(or  both),  this  shoe  is  deeply  seated  out  round  the  toe,  at  which 
point,  in  consequence,  it  has  extra  '  cover.'  The  shoe  has  a 
clip  on  either  side  of  the  toe,  and  the  nail  holes  are  stamped  a 
little  further  back  than  usual,  in  order  to  obtain  a  firm  liold  of 
the  foot  even  when  the  toe  is  '  seedy/  and  to  allow  the  shoe  to 
be  set  further  back  on  the  foot  and  the  toe  to  be  shortened. 

Calkins  as  shown  are  necessary  to  give  working  horses  a 
good  foothold,  though  it  is  open  to  question  whether  they 
could  be  pronounced  advantageous  were  one  considering  the 
question  of  disease  alone. 


336  DEFORMITIES   AND    DISEASES   OF  THE   HOOF. 


2.  IJPEiGHT  Hoof. 

The  description  '  upright '  may  be  applied  to  any  hoof,  the 
toe  of  which,  when  viewed  from  the  side,  forms  an  angle  of  more 
than  60°  with  the  ground,  and  the  heels,  compared  with  the  toe, 
appear  too  high.  The  relative  lengths  of  heel  and  toe  vary. 
While  in  slight  cases  of  upright  hoof  the  length  of  the  toe  is 
scarcely  double  that  of  the  heel,  measured  at  the  posterior 
border,  in  aggravated  cases  the  height  of  the  toe  and  heel  may 
be  equal.  The  toe  is  then  at  right  angles  to  the  earth,  and 
the  quarters  nearly  perpendicular.  The  sole  is  usually  very 
concave,  though  the  os  pedis  does  not  always  correspond.  In 
walking,  the  toe  is  most  worn,  and  (except  in  the  conformation 
shown  by  fig.  169)  the  entire  weight  of  the  body  falls  on  the 
anterior  half  of  the  hoof. 

Upright  hoof  is  seen  in  all  classes  of  horses,  and  affects  both 
the  fore  and  hind  feet. 

The  condition  is  peculiar  to  the  positions  shown  in  figs.  151 
and  169.  It  is  due  to  hereditary  tendency,  or  is  produced 
by  neglect  of  the  feet  in  young  animals,  the  toe  being  dis- 
proportionately shortened  in  comparison  with  the  heels,  and 
is  apt  to  follow  diseases  of  the  limb,  which,  for  lengthened 
periods,  prevent  extension  of  the  fetlock  joint.  Among  such 
are  inflammation  of  the  flexor  tendons  and  of  the  posterior 
ligaments  of  the  limb,  spavin,  and  ring  bone.  Thrush  is  very 
apt  to  accompany  this  formation  of  hoof.  According  to 
Siedamgrotzky,  it  is  always  present  in  old  standing  cases  of 
contracted  tendon.  In  consequence  of  the  gradual  shortening 
of  the  flexor  tendons,  the  os  pedis  undergoes  a  partial 
rotation  on  its  transverse  axis.  The  resulting  pressure  on  the 
toe  leads  to  the  papillae  of  the  coronary  band  assuming  a 
more  upright  position,  and  to  the  formation  of  an  upright,  thin, 
but  firm  toe  wall.  This  is  followed  by  a  similar  change  in 
the  heeJs,  while,  under  continued  pressure,  the  anterior  portion 
of  the  sole  becomes  flattened  and  the  white  line  increased  in 
breadth. 

The  prognosis  depends  on  whether  the  condition  is  congenital, 
i.e.,  whether  it  results  from  the  conformation  of  the  limbs  or 
whether  it  is  acquired. 


SHOEING    HORSES   WITH   UPEIGHT   FEET.  337 

When  due  to  faulty  conformation  the  defect  is  incurable, 
but  less  grave  than  when  acquired.  The  uncertain,  stumbling, 
borinoj  oait  seen  in  horses  with  such  hoofs  is  oftener  a  result 
of  defects  in  the  limbs  than  of  the  form  of  the  hoof.  The 
worst  cases  are  those  in  which  the  heels  do  not  touch  the 
ground  during  movement,  and  the  condition  is  not  due  to  mal- 
formation of  the  limb.  The  tendons  and  ligaments  are  then 
continuously  under  great  strain,  and,  in  unshod  animals,  the 
sensitive  structures  of  the  toe  are  bruised  in  consequence  of 
excessive  wear.  In  concrenital  cases  the  heels  bear  an  undue 
proportion  of  the  weight.  An  approximately  ecpial  wear  of 
the  shoe  and  a  level  tread  show  that  the  faulty  position  of  the 
limb  has  been  compensated  by  change  in  form  of  the  hoof. 
In  fact,  where  the  conformation  of  the  limb  is  abnormal, 
uprightness  of  the  hoof  is,  strictly  speaking,  neither  pathological 
nor  faulty. 

The  method  of  shoeing  varies.  The  upright  hoof,  when 
compensatory  to  defective  conformation,  must  be  left  alone. 
This  is  the  case  where  the  entire  foot  from  the  fetlock  down- 
wards is  upright,  or  where  the  suffraginis  bone  is  nearly 
horizontal.  But  if  it  result  from  increased  wear  of  the  toe  in 
foals  which  have  not  been  shod,  and  it  seem  impossible  to 
restore  the  normal  position  by  shortening  the  heels,  a  tip  or 
plain  shoe  with  thin  heels  may  be  applied.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  heavy  bodied  horses  doing  hard  work  on  streets  the 
heels  should  be  lowered  and  care  taken  that  the  tread  is  kept 
level,  while  the  axis  of  the  foot  is  rendered  somewhat  more 
oblique. 

Uprightness  consequent  on  excessive  paring  of  the  toe  can 
be  diminished  by  using  shoes  with  thin  heels  and  broad  toes, 
sometimes  by  building  up  the  toe  with  a  horn  substitute 
{hitfleclerkitt),  or  by  gradually  lowering  the  heels. 

If  the  cause  be  some  diseased  condition  of  the  limb  above 
the  hoof,  the  object  of  the  farrier  should  be  to  ensure  a  level 
tread,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  apply  shoes  with  calkins  or 
with  thickened  heels.  In  this  case  the  production  of  upright 
hoof  should  be  favoured,  a  course  which  at  first  sight  may 
appear  objectionable,  but  will  be  better  understood  by  recalling 
the  improvement  which  follows  the  application  of  a  thick-heeled 
shoe  in  fiat-footed  horses  with  strain  or   contraction   of    the 

Y 


338  DEFORMITIES   AND   DISEASES   OF   THE    HOOF. 

flexor  tendons.  The  hoof  is  then  too  low  at  the  heels  to  allow' 
of  regular  distribution  of  weight  and  must  be  raised.  In  pro- 
portion as  the  disease  of  the  limb,  which  causes  uprightness, 
disappears,  a  better  form  can  be  given  to  the  hoof  by  appropriate 
paring.  To  attempt  to  convert  an  upright  into  a  normal  hoof 
at  one  operation  is  only  allowable  in  view  of  performing 
tenotomy. 

In  shoeing  ordinary  working  horses  with  upright  feet  it  is 
generally  necessary  to  strengthen  the  toe.  This  is  best  effected 
by  letting  in  a  piece  of  steel  at  that  point,  by  drawing  up  a 
strong  toe-clip  and  by  '  rolling '  or  rounding  off  the  toe.  The 
shoe  must  be  broad  in  the  web,  and  take  a  good  hold  of  the 
toe  of  the  hoof.  The  calkins  should  be  so  high  as  just  to  touch 
the  ground  when  the  horse  is  standing  level  on  all  four  feet. 
In  shoeing  horses  with  spavin,  ring  bone,  and  shortened  tendons 
a  similar  shoe,  but  with  wedge  heels  instead  of  calkins,  is 
useful. 


STAMPED  CAET  HIXD  SHOE,  WITH  TOE- 
PIECE  (Fig.  328). 

Made  from  1^  x  -g-  inch  iron. 

In  cases  of  commencing  contraction  of  the  flexor  tendons 
of  the  hind  limb  this  shoe  will  often  be  found  useful.  The 
calkins  give  the  animal  an  assured  foothold,  while  the  toe-piece 
prevents  '  knuckling '  at  the  fetlock,  limits  wear  of  the  toe  of 
shoe,  and  maintains  a  steady  though  limited  pull  on  the  con- 
tracted structures.  At  each  shoeing  the  calkins  may  be 
slightly  lowered,  so  as  to  keep  pace  with  the  improvement  in 
position  of  the  limb. 

Many  horses,  which  would  otherwise  rapidly  become  useless, 
can  be  rendered  workable,  if  not  actually  cured,  by  the  applica- 
tion of  this  shoe. 

The  toe-piece,  which  is  about  1^  inches  long,  is  made  inde- 
pendently of  the  shoe,  and  is  '  shut '  or  welded  on  to  the  foot 
surface. 


v'<-Ti.":5tei">' 


Fig.  328. — Stamped  cart  hind  shoe,  with  toe-piece. 
Made  from  li  x  f  inch  iron. 


[To  face  p.  338. 


SHOEING  HOESES  THAT   'KNUCKLE  OVER. 


339 


3.  Special  Shoes  for  Houses  Knuckled  Over  at 
THE  Coronet  or  Fetlock. 

'  Knuckling '  at  the  coronet  or  fetlock  is  produced  by 
shortening  of  the  flexor  tendons  or  by  bony  growths  around 
the  joints ;  the  foot,  from  the  fetlock  downwards,  takes  a 
perpendicular  or  nearly  perpendicular  course,  so  that  the  animal 
treads  on  the  toe  alone.  This  condition  can  sometimes  be  modi- 
fied, though  never  cured  by  shoeing.      Sufficient  may  be  done, 


Fig.  329.— Shoe  for  'knuckling  over.'  a,  bone  deposit 
around  the  coronet ;  b,  flattened  end  of  the  shoe, 
which  is  kept  from  touching  the  wall  by  the  leather 
disc,  c. 


1*'IG.  330.— Special  shoe  for  '  knuck- 
ling '  associated  with  obliteration 
of  the  coronet  joint. 


however,  to  permit  of  the  animal  continuing  for  a  long  time  at 
work.  The  shoes  should  be  provided  with  heels  which  just 
touch  the  ground  when  the  animal  stands  on  all  four  feet,  but 
in  aggravated  cases  this  is  not  sufficient,  and  to  assist  in  move- 
ment it  becomes  necessary  to  lengthen  the  toe  of  the  shoe. 
The  exact  extent  and  form  of  this  prolongation  cannot  be 
given,  as  they  must  necessarily  vary  in  each  case. 

Such  shoes  have  the  disadvantage  of  being  torn  off  occasion- 


340  DEFOEMITIES   AND   DISEASES   OF   THE   HOOF. 

ally,  the  prolongation  at  the  toe  acting  as  a  lever.  To  prevent 
this,  Neuschield  thins  and  flattens  the  extremity  and  bends  it 
upwards  and  backwards  so  as  to  take  a  bearing  on  the  wall  of 
tlie  tue,  a  stout  piece  of  leather  being  interposed. 

For  the  early  forms  of  this  condition  in  foals  a  special  shoe 
has  been  used,  provided  with  a  kind  of  iron  splint  welded  to 
the  toe  and  extending  upwards  above  the  fetlock  joint.  It  is 
made  to  fit  the  front  of  the  large  metacarpal  bone,  to  which  it 
is  secured  by  a  well-padded  bandage.  The  steady  opposition 
to  the  pull  of  the  shortened  tendons  gradually  causes  elongation 
and  reduction  of  the  knuckling. 

4.    CONTKACTED    FoOT. 

(A).  Contraction  of  heels. — In  contracted  foot  the  posterior 
half  of  the  hoof  becomes  narrower  and  presses  on  the  con- 
tained structures,  such  as  the  corium,  lateral  cartilages,  etc. 
The  condition  frequently  affects  flat  feet,  and  is  commoner  in 
front  than  behind.  It  may  develop  to  a  very  varying  extent, 
and  its  recognition  demands  a  clear  perception  of  the  form  of 
a  normal  hoof.  This  should  have,  firstly,  a  broad  and  well- 
developed  frog.  Both  limbs  of  the  frog  should  be  of  equal 
size,  and  between  them  should  lie  a  moderately  deep  but  broad 
groove. 

In  unshod  horses  neither  the  central  nor  lateral  furrows  are 
widely  open,  because  the  horny  frog  is  pressed  flat  and  thrust 
closely  against  the  bar  at  either  side. 

In  the  contracted  hoof  the  triangular  space  destined  for  the 
reception  of  the  frog  is  diminished  in  size  and  the  frog  itself 
is  smaller  to  a  corresponding  extent.  The  extremities  of  the 
wall,  therefore,  approach  one  another.  When  the  condition  is 
aggravated  the  lateral  and  central  grooves  of  the  frog  are 
narrow,  they  exist  as  more  or  less  deep  fissures,  and  in  fully 
developed  cases  the  limbs  of  the  frog  almost  disappear.  The 
bars  are  sometimes  even  in  contact  or  overlap  one  another,  and 
the  previously  rounded  prominent  bulbs  of  the  frog  become 
thin  and  closely  pressed  together.  Whilst  in  hoofs  of  good 
form  the  bars  are  straight,  in  this  condition  they  describe  a 
curve,  directed  towards  the  bearing  surface  of  the  wall,  that  is, 
they   run   backwards,  outwards,  and   again  inwards.      In    flat 


CONTRACTION   OF   THE   FOOT. 


341 


hoofs  the  frog  sometimes  becomes  compressed  by  the  bars  (fig. 
331) ;  this  is  not  infrequently  the  forerunner  of  contraction. 
Just  as  the  space  occupied  by  the  frog  diminishes,  the  direc- 


FlG.  331.— Strangulation  of  the  frog  by  the  bars. 

tion  of  the  walls  at  the  heel  alters.  The  heels  gradually 
encroach  on  the  frog,  converging  from  the  coronet  towards  the 
bearing  surface ;  they  draw  together  either  in  an  equal  degree 


Fig.  332.— Excessive  contraction  of  heels. 
The  frog  has  almost  disappeared. 


Fig.  333.— Unilateral  contraction. 


(fig.  332),  or  one  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  other  (fig.  333). 
It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  every  hoof  in  which 
the  walls  at  the  heel  converge  is  a  contracted  hoof,  because, 


342  DEFORMITIES  AND  DISEASES   OF  THE   HOOF. 

with  the  exception  of  pronounced  upright  hoofs,  all  show 
moderate  convergence  of  the  posterior  parts  of  the  heel 
walls. 

Horses  with  contracted  heels  usually  stand  with  the  fetlock 
upright  while  the  axis  of  the  foot  is  not  infrequently  hent 
backwards  (see  fig.  201).  The  diseased  foot  is  placed  a  little 
in  advance  and  is  also  slightly  flexed.  When  both  feet  are 
diseased  the  animal  rests  them  alternately,  and  when  the  con- 
dition has  existed  for  long  there  is  bending  at  the  knees. 
Both  the  last  named  symptoms  result  from  tenderness  of  the 
sensitive  structures. 

Tlie  gait  is  low,  '  shuttling,'  and  uncertain,  especially  for 
the  first  few  steps.  The  foot  strikes  against  obstacles  and  the 
animal  stumbles,  even  on  fairly  level  ground.  This  symptom, 
most  marked  when  the  horse  is  ridden,  renders  him  both 
unpleasant  and  unsafe.  At  a  trot  he  fails  to  extend  the  front 
limbs,  and  if  only  one  hoof  is  affected  may  go  quite  lame.  If 
the  shoes  impede  expansion  of  the  heels,  the  pain  may  even 
become  acute  enough  to  throw  the  horse  off  its  feed,  and  cause 
it  to  lie  continually.  The  pain  forces  the  animal  to  go  on 
the  toe,  and  there  is  at  first  increased  wear  of  that  part  of  the 
shoe,  though,  when  the  process  is  complete,  the  shoe  may  again 
be  worn  level.  Manual  examination  reveals  slightly  increased 
warmth  at  the  heels,  pulsation  of  the  digital  arteries,  pain  on 
pressing  and  on  tapping  the  heels. 

In  consequence  of  the  changes  going  on  in  the  hoof  it  loses 
its  normal  form  and  becomes  longer  and  narrower,  the  horny 
sole  being  usually  more  concave,  and  the  horn  of  the  heels 
weaker  and  less  tough.  The  bulbs  are  atrophied  so  that  the 
frog  partly  disappears.  On  dissection,  there  is  often  to  be 
found  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  foot  atrophy  of  the  coronary 
band,  of  the  plantar  cushion,  and  sometimes  even  of  the  os 
pedis.  Atrophy  of  the  pedal  bone  is  best  seen  at  the  wings, 
but  in  severe  cases  may  extend  even  to  other  parts. 

As  the  hoof  contracts  at  the  heels  the  sensitive  sole  is  sub- 
ject to  continued  pressure  in  direct  proportion  to  the  degree  to 
which  the  heels  converge  and  to  which  they  are  thrust  down- 
wards. Both  conditions  are  most  marked  in  flat  feet,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  flat  feet  with  contracted  heels  almost  always  exhibit 
corns  as  a  complication.      The  point  which  suffers  most  is  perhaps 


CHANGES   IN   FORM   OF   COXTKACTED    FOOT.  343 

where  the  coronary  band  is  reflected  forwards  to  become  con- 
tinuous with  the  corresponding  part  of  the  bars. 

The  strain  on  the  coronary  margin  often  causes  sandcrack, 
and  as  the  bars  become  distorted  from  the  continued  approach 
of  the  heels  they  may  also  exhibit  fissures. 

Contracted  feet  expand  to  a  much  less  extent  than  do  normal 
feet,  and  experiments  on  the  living  animal  show  that  in  well- 
marked  cases  this  movement  is  diminished,  sometimes  even 
entirely  absent  or  replaced  at  the  most  anterior  portion  of  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  heel  by  contraction.  The  coronary 
margin  of  the  heels,  on  the  other  hand,  dilates,  and  whilst,  in 
the  healthy  foot,  contact  of  the  frog  with  the  ground  produces 
dilatation  both  at  the  coronary  and  bearing  margins,  in  con- 
tracted feet  this  is  always  diminished  if  not  inhibited.  The 
symptoms  seem  due  to  the  position  of  the  heels  relatively  to  the 
ground,  because  the  more  the  heels  converge,  from  above  down- 
wards, the  less  does  the  bearing  margin  expand.  Under  tha 
body- weight  the  portions  comprised  between  the  two  heels, 
that  is,  the  plantar  cushion,  lateral  cartilages  and  sensitive 
wall,  are  strongly  compressed  by  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  heel 
walls,  especially  when  the  shoe  is  fitted  '  too  fine '  at  the 
heels.  Tliis  pressure  (caused  by  the  body-weight)  is  rendered 
more  injurious  by  the  shoe  preventing  any  yielding  at  the  heel — 
a  condition  comparable  to  that  produced  in  man  by  too  narrow 
a  boot. 

This  contraction  at  the  heels  leads  to  bruising  of  sensitive 
structures,  rupture  of  small  blood-vessels,  and  extravasation  of 
blood,  which  stains  the  new  horn  red,  while  the  increased  strain 
at  the  coronary  margin  favours  splitting  and  formation  of  sand- 
cracks. 

Though  usually  easy  to  detect,  the  condition  may  be 
mistaken  for  shoulder  lameness,  chronic  navicular  disease,  or 
strain  of  the  pastern  joint.  Tlie  corns  which  occur  as  a  sequel 
are  sometimes  regarded  as  the  principal  disease. 

The  causes  are  numerous,  but  may  be  divided  into  two  groups, 
namely,  predisposing  and  exciting. 

(a)  The  predisposing  causes  include  faulty  conformation  of 
the  limb  and  defective  shape  of  the  hoof,  but  they  seldom 
come  into  play  before  the  hoof  is  shod.  The  greatest  tendency 
to  contraction  is  seen  in  weak  feet,  wliich  naturally  possess  long 


344  DEFOEMITIES   AND    DISEASES   OF   THE   HOOF. 

toes  and  low  heels,  and  in  which  the  anterior  and  posterior 
margins,  viewed  from  the  sides,  form  an  angle  of  less  than 
45°  with  the  earth.  The  more  oblique  the  hoof,  the  more 
rapidly  does  contraction  proceed,  whatever  the  previous  condi- 
tion of  the  heels.  Despite  every  care  in  shoeing,  contraction 
may  still  occur  in  consequence  of  the  altered  direction  of  the 
walls  at  the  heel  and  of  the  greatly  increased  load  they  are 
called  on  to  bear.  It  is  the  excessive  pressure  on  oblique  and 
inw^ardly-directed  heels,  in  the  absence  of  counter-pressure  on 
the  sole  and  frog,  which  so  rapidly  produces  the  change  in  form. 
At  the  same  time,  instead  of  the  coronary  and  bearing  margins 
of  the  heels  being  equally  exposed  to  the  expanding  strain  when 
weight  is  thrown  on  the  foot,  dilatation  occurs  only  at  the 
coronary  margin,  which  is,  therefore,  continually  in  tension, 
while  the  bearing  margin  is  fixed  or  even  thrust  from  all  sides 
towards  the  centre  of  the  sole.  A  well-developed  frog  and 
strong  bars,  especially  when  exposed  to  the  counter-pressure 
of  the  ground,  prevent  contraction.  If,  however,  the  parts 
are  weak  or  diseased  and  the  horny  frog  no  longer  bears 
weight  there  is  nothing  to  oppose  its  progress.  It  has  even 
been  suggested  that  a  small  or  diseased  frog  and  weakened  bars 
form  the  sole  cause  of  contraction,  a  view  in  a  measure  sup- 
ported by  the  following  examples. 

In  severe  thrush  in  flat  feet  the  portion  of  the  frog 
marked  &,  in  fig.  35,  may  be  lost.  Under  such  circum- 
stances the  hoof  contracts  precisely  to  the  extent  left  vacant 
by  tlie  portion  lost.  In  upright  hoofs,  on  the  other  hand,  even 
when  this  part  of  the  frog  is  lost,  contraction  does  not  occur. 
The  cause  of  contraction  is,  therefore,  not  thrush,  but  the  pres- 
sure of  the  body-weight,  which  forces  the  w^alls  of  the  heel 
downwards,  forwards,  and  inwards.  On  the  same  day  two 
young  carriage  horses  were  shod  for  the  first  time.  In  one 
horse  the  front  hoofs  formed  an  anole  of  40  and  in  the  other 
of  55  with  the  ground.  All  four  hoofs  were  sound.  These 
animals  were  shod  in  precisely  the  same  way  for  a  year,  but^ 
despite  similar  treatment,  the  fiat  hoof  was  visibly  contracted 
as  compared  with  the  other.  In  this  case  the  greater  weight 
thrown  on  the  posterior  half  of  the  hoof  was  not  the  only  cause. 

A  pair  of  trotting  horses,  of  similar  age,  size,  weight,  and 
breed,  had  each  weak  fore-heels.      In  one  case,  however,  th& 


CAUSES   OF  CONTRACTED   FOOT.  345 

hoofs  were  flat,  in  the  other  upright.  The  horse  with  flat  hoofs 
suffered  from  contraction,  the  other  did  not,  the  reason  appear- 
ing to  be  simply  that  in  upright  hoofs  the  heels  bear  less 
weight  than  in  flat  hoofs. 

As  a  rule,  when  the  formation  of  the  limb  as  viewed  from  in 
front  appears  normal,  both  heels  contract  equally,  but  when  the 
toes  are  turned  in  or  out  contraction  is  unequal.  AVith  turned- 
out  toes  the  inner,  with  turned-in  toes  the  outer,  heel  appears 
to  suffer  most.  Once  the  heel  contracts  sufficiently  to  run 
downwards  and  iniuards,  the  body-weight  aggravates  the  condi- 
tion. The  heel  becomes  more  and  more  oblique  and  the 
affected  half  of  the  frog  diminishes  in  size.  The  os  pedis  wing 
of  the  same  side  also  suffers  and  may  undergo  atrophy.  The 
change  progresses  with  a  rapidity  proportioned  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  toes  are  turned  out  or  in,  and  is  sometimes  very 
marked  in  flat  feet.  When  contraction  is  limited  to  one  side 
of  the  foot  the  bulbs  of  the  heel  may  be  displaced. 

(h)  Exciting  Causes. — 1.  The  first  of  these  is  defective  shoe- 
ing, that  is,  not  only  the  use  of  badly  constructed  shoes  but 
faulty  preparation  of  the  feet. 

Of  the  latter  class  of  errors  perhaps  the  most  serious  is 
weakening  the  bars  and  frog  by  excessive  paring,  and  next, 
thinning  the  sole.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  principle  that  to 
remove  more  than  loose  horn  is  a  fault.  Fortunately,  excessive 
use  of  the  knife  is  much  less  common  than  formerly ;  at  one 
time  it  was  usual  to  pare  the  parts  until  the  sole  yielded  to  the 
pressure  of  the  finger  and  spots  of  blood  appeared  on  the  frog. 
In-curved  heels,  which  tend  to  compress  the  frog,  should  be 
carefully  lowered  without  weakening  the  union  between  heel, 
frog,  and  bar  (see  fig.  331,  a,  h).  "When  the  heels  are  lowered 
overmuch  the  toe  becomes  disproportionately  long  and  the  axis 
of  the  foot  distorted,  so  that  worse  e'ffects  are  produced  than 
by  corresponding  lowering  of  the  toe.  The  direction  of  the 
foot  axis  must  always  be  kept  in  view  when  paring  the  foot. 

In  flat  hoofs  contraction  may  also  be  favoured  by  insufficient 
paring  or  by  allowing  the  shoes  to  remain  on  for  too  long  a 
time. 

Shoes  with  bearing  surfaces  inclined  inwards  at  the  heels 
and  shoes  fitted  too  wide,  that  is,  in  which  the  heels  (of 
the  shoe)  do  not  cover  those  of  the  hoof,  compress  the  latter. 


346  DEFORMITIES   AND   DISEASES   OF   THE    HOOF. 

The  same  effect  is  produced  wlien  the  seating  is  continued 
right  up  to  the  heel  of  the  shoe,  especially  if  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  heel  (of  the  hoof)  rest  in  the  seated  out  portion. 
Shoes  with  calkins  favour  contraction  more  than  Hat  shoes. 
Finally,  by  shoeing  young  horses  too  early  complete  develop- 
ment of  the  hoof  is   checked  and  contraction  favoured. 

2.  Dryness. — Dryness  of  the  horn  diminishes  its  elasticity 
and  volume. 

3.  Insufficient  Exercise. — Tf  young  liorses,  after  being 
shod  for  the  first  time,  are  long  confined  to  the  stable,  the 
posterior  lialf  of  the  hoof  invariably  contracts,  while  want  of 
exercise  causes  the  front  hoofs  to  become  hard  and  dry  and 
the  hind-feet  to  be  attacked  with  thrusli.  Circulation  and 
liorn  secretion  are  also  less  vigorous.  In  yearlings  all  these 
ill  results  are  seen  in  an  aooravated  form. 

Prognosis. — Attention  should  first  be  directed  to  the  state  of 
the  lateral  cartilage,  because,  when  this  is  ossified,  no  improve- 
ment in  form  need  be  expected.  Next,  the  conformation  of 
the  limbs  demands  consideration.  When  the  axis  of  the  foot 
and  the  form  of  the  hoof  seen  from  the  side  are  upright  or 
snormal,  the  prognosis  is  favourable.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
foot  axis  is  oblique  and  the  lioof  fiat,  and  if  in  addition  the  toes 
are  turned  out,  the  conditions  all  point  to  contraction,  and  in 
such  cases  the  inner  heel  will  be  found  wired  in  and  the  bulbs 
of  the  frog  displaced.  In  old  animals,  whicli  for  years  have 
suffered  from  contraction,  the  prognosis  is  unfavourable,  because 
atrophy  of  the  os  pedis  has  often  occurred,  and  complete 
recovery  is  impossible ;  but  in  young  animals  even  well-marked 
contraction,  if  uncomplicated,  can  frequently  be  cured  without 
much  difficulty. 

Preventive  measures  have  occupied  the  attention  of  many 
investigators,  but  owing  to  the  treatment  of  working  horses 
and  the  various  styles  of  shoeing,  success  has  been  distinctly 
limited.  It  is  often  useful,  after  correcting  the  form  of 
the  feet,  to  turn  the  horse  out  to  grass  without  shoes,  and  later 
to  apply  a  shoe  which  permits  free  movement  of  the  posterior 
section  of  the  foot  and  allows  the  frog  to  come  to  the  ground. 
Treatment,  therefore,  comprises  the  application  of  a  flat  shoe, 
with  a  horizontal  surface  at  the  heels,  non-interference  with 
the  frog,  and  abundant  exercise  on  moist  ground.     The  farm 


PROBABILITY   OF   PwECOVERY   AFTER   COXTRACTIOX.  347 

horse  seldom  shows  contracted  hoof,  for  he  is,  almost  always  on 
soft  ground,  and  his  soles  are,  therefore,  exposed  to  the  counter- 
pressure  of  the  earth.  Horses  working  in  towns  require  this 
moisture  to  be  supplied  artiticially,  and  it  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  use  flat  shoes  and  to  fill  the  space  between  the  limbs  of  the 
shoe  with  felt  pads  or  to  give  a  foot-bath  occasionally.  In 
severe  cases  bar  shoes  promote  the  growth  of  the  frog  and 
hinder  contraction. 

The  tiratmcnt  aims  at  restoring  the  normal  width  of  the 
hoof,  and  is  best  commenced  by  the  use  of  poultices  or  warm 
baths  which  soften  the  horn.  Thereafter  several  courses  are 
open. 

(A)  Kestoration  of  the  counter-pressure  of  the  ground. 
This  may  be  regarded  as  the  natural  method  of  cure.  Under 
it  are  comprised  : — 

(1)  Turning  horses  out  to  grass  without  shoes. 

(2)  The  use  of  tips. 

(3)  Of  shoes  with  thin  heels. 

(4)  Of  heelless  shoes  with  leather  soles. 

(5)  Of  bar  shoes  with  or  without  leather  soles. 

(6)  Of  pads  covering  the  entire  sole. 

(B)  The  use  of  mechanical  devices,  which  thrust  or  draw 
apart  the  heel,  such  as : — 

(7)  De  la  Broue's  slipper  shoe. 

(8)  Shoes  with  bar  clips. 

(C)  Operations  on  the  hoof  itself,  either  alone  or  in  conjunc- 
tion with  one  or  another  of  the  methods  already  named. 

A.  Methods  of  Ee-establishing  the  Counter-Pressure  of 
THE  Ground  or  Compensating  for  its  Absence. 

1.  Eest  at  grass,  to  be  effectual,  should  be  oontinued 
from  four  to  six  months,  at  any  rate  not  less  than  three, 
and  is  not  advisable  for  animals  with  very  weak  low  heels. 
As  a  preparation,  excess  of  horn  should  be  removed,  the  wall 
rounded  off,  incurved  heels,  pressing  on  the  ground,  removed, 
and  the  point  of  tlie  frog  (to  the  commencement  of  the 
central  groove)  lowered  to  the  same  height  as  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  wall ;  the  limbs,  on  the  other  liand,  may  be 
left  somewliat  higher.      The  horse  can   then   be   turned  out  to 


348  DEFORMITIES   AND   DISEASES   OF   THE   HOOF. 

grass  or,  if  this  be  impracticable,  regularly  exercised  in  a  large- 
shed.      Light  saddle  or  draught  work  on  soft  ground  is  useful. 

In  horses  with  well-marked  unilateral  contraction,  turning 
out  to  grass  is  inadvisable  and  it  is  better  to  trust  to  proper 
shoeing. 

2.  The  use  of  tips  produces  a  somewhat  similar  effect  to- 
turning  out  to  grass,  and  can  be  recommended  when  the  animal 
cannot  be  rested  or  when,  on  account  of  the  condition  of  the 
ground,  the  hoof  tends  to  contract  in  spite  of  light  work.  Two 
kinds  of  tips  may  be  distinguished :  the  ordinary  and  the 
modified  Charlier ;  both  are  well  adapted  for  feet  of  the  upright 
and  ordinary  shapes,  but  less  for  oblique  feet. 

The  methods  given  under  1  and  2  have  the  advantage  of 
producing  a  more  rapid  growth  of  horn  because  of  the  natural 
distribution  of  weight  in  all  parts  of  the  ground  surface  of  the 
hoof,  which  favours  the  normal  movement  of  the  parts  and  the 
circulation  of  blood.  The  final  result  is  to  increase  the  width 
and  strength  of  the  hoof  at  its  posterior  half. 

3.  Shoes  with  thinned  heels  can  be  used  both  for  upright 
feet  and  those  of  normal  angle,  but  are  less  desirable  in  flat 
feet.  They  act  by  allowing  the  frog  to  come  to  the  ground 
and  bear  a  certain  proportion  of  weight. 

4  Heelless  shoes  with  or  without  leather  soles  are  sufficient 
in  all  cases  of  moderate  contraction  if  the  frog  is  strong  enough 
to  touch  the  ground,  and  their  effect  is  more  marked  the  more 
faulty  the  previous  treatment  and  shoeing.  AVhere  the  sole 
and  bars  have  been  weakened  and  the  seating  out  of  the  sho& 
has  been  continued  to  the  heels,  it  is  sufficient  to  round  the 
toe  and  to  apply  a  shoe  with  a  perfectly  horizontal  bearing 
surface  at  the  heels  to  produce  in  two  or  three  shoeings  a 
marked  improvement.  The  application  of  a  leather  sole  will 
hasten  recovery. 

5.  Ear  shoes,  with  or  without  leather  soles.  Where  the 
frog  is  healthy  and  the  bar  can  take  a  bearing  on  it,  a  leather 
sole  is  scarcely  required.  Should  the  bearing  surface  of  the 
hoof  be  defective  or  broken  away,  or  should  corns  or  sand- 
cracks  co-exist  with  contraction,  the  ordinary,  or  the  three- 
quarter  bar  shoe,  is  perhaps  to  be  preferred.  It  is  fitted  close 
at  the  toe  and  quarter  and  slightly  '  sprung '  at  the  heels. 
Expansion  of  the  hoof  is  greatly  assisted  by  carefully  filling 


TKEATMENT  OF  CONTRACTION.  349 

the  lateral  and  central  furrows  of  the  frog  with  some  plastic 
composition. 

If,  however,  the  frog  is  attacked  with  thrush,  or  if  other 
diseases  of  the  hoof  accompany  defects  in  the  bearing  surface  of 
the  wall,  a  simple  leather  sole  and  stopping  are  more  useful. 

The  bar  shoe  with  leather  sole  can  also  be  used  in  uni- 
lateral contraction  with  displacement  of  the  bulbs.  As  the 
chief  object  is  to  restore  the  bulbs  of  the  frog  to  their  normal 
position  and  to  thrust  outwards  the  contracted  wall,  it  must 
be  borue  in  mind  that  the  upward  displacement  of  the  bulbs 
results  from  excessive  and  irregularly  distributed  weight. 
Various  authors  and  practitioners  recommend  lowering  the 
affected  heel  wall  until  there  is  a  clear  space  between  it  and 
the  shoe,  thinking  thus  to  allow  the  affected  bulb  to  sink,  but 
experience  shows  that  this  often  fails  in  its  object.  Lowering 
the  affected  heel  is  not  sufficient ;  it  is  of  much  greater  im- 
portance to  throw  the  weight  of  the  body  on  the  wall  of  the 
opposite  quarter  and  heel.  To  effect  this  the  hoof  should  be 
pared  and  shod  so  as  to  bring  the  higher  side  to  the  ground  a 
little  earlier  than  the  other,  though  it  is  necessary  to  avoid 
distorting  the  axis  of  the  foot,  and  to  fit  the  shoe  close  to  the 
outline  of  the  sound  heel,  but  somewhat  broader  and  longer 
than  that  of  the  unhealthy  one.  If  this  style  of  tread  cannot 
be  produced  by  trimming  the  hoof  alone,  the  branches  of  the 
shoe  can  be  made  of  unequal  thickness.  A  leather  sole  with 
plenty  of  stopping  will  greatly  assist  recovery. 

6.  Filling  the  hoof  with  cement  is  a  slow  method,  and  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  cement  should  thoroughly  cover 
the  limbs  of  the  frog.  Straw  or  cork  soles  or  Hartmann's 
rubber  pads  are  to  be  preferred  on  account  of  their  continued 
pressure,  though  precautions  must  be  taken  against  thrush. 
The  gutta-percha  composition  may  advantageously  be  tried ; 
being  perfectly  plastic  it  moulds  itself  to  all  the  depressions  of 
the  ground  surface  of  the  hoof,  and  exercises  an  exceedingly 
even  and,  therefore,  efficacious  pressure.  In  the  treatment  of 
unilateral  contraction  the  bar  shoe  and  leather  sole  are  to  be 
preferred  to  all  other  measures.  Plenty  of  tow  must  be  used 
in  the  furrow  of  the  frog  on  the  diseased  side,  so  as  to  main- 
tain constant  pressure. 


360  DEFOKMITIES   AND   DISEASES   OF   THE   HOOF. 


B.  Mechanical  Methods. 

7.  De  la  Broue's  slipper  shoe  tends  to  expand  the  entire  wall 
of  the  hoof.  It  is  claimed  that  the  bearing  margin  lying  on 
an  oblique  surface  spreads  outwards  under  the  pressure  of  the 
horse's  body-weight,  and  that  the  shoe  is  useful  in  all  cases  of 
contraction  where  the  coronary  margin  is  wider  than  the  bear- 
ing margin  of  the  hoof.  It  exposes  tlie  white  line,  however, 
to  excessive  strain,  and  is,  therefore,  no  longer  used  in  this 
form,  especially  as  there  are  other  and  less  dangerous  methods 
of  expanding  the  hoof.  By  confining  the  outward  slope  of  the 
bearing  surface  to  the  heel  (or  heels,  when  both  sides  of  the 
foot  are  affected),  it,  however,  renders  good  service.  Never- 
theless great  care  is  needed  in  determining  the  exact  amount 
of  slope,  and  the  distance  to  which  it  should  extend,  otherwise 
severe  lameness  results.  It  is  usually  sufficient  if  the  outer 
margin  of  the  hoof  surface  is  ^  to  -i-  inch  lower  than  the 
inner,  and  this  oblique  surface  should  only  extend  as  far 
forwards  as  the  wall  of  the  heel  forms  with  the  ground  an 
acute  angle.  The  same  principle  may,  of  course,  be  applied 
to  the  heels  of  bar  shoes. 

8,  SJiocs  vAth  bar-dijjs. — (a)  De  Fay's  is  a  fiat  shoe  with  a 
clip  at  the  inner  margin  of  either  heel.  The  clips  should  lie 
in  the  lateral  furrows  of  the  frog,  exactly  at  the  points  where 
the  wall  is  refiected  to  form  the  bars.  They  should  fit  evenly 
on  the  bars,  but  should  not  extend  to  the  bottom  of  the  lateral 
furrow  of  the  frog.  The  foot  surface  at  the  heel  must  be 
absolutely  horizontal.  The  shoe  should  be  cooled  and  nailed 
on,  and  the  dilator  (fig.  334)  then  adjusted  with  its  cheeks 
between  the  heels,  which  are  expanded  by  turning  the  screw 
h.  This  forcibly  widens  the  hoof.  The  method  requires  the 
greatest  care,  and  is  certainly  not  often  applicable.  On  the 
first  occasion  it  is  sufficient  to  dilate  the  parts  y\j  to  -|-  inch, 
and  nothing  further  should  be  done  until  the  space  gained 
can  be  filled  with  horn,  that  is,  in  from  ten  to  fourteen 
days. 

(h)  Hartniann's  expanding  shoe  (fig.  335)  is  narrow,  and 
possesses  one  or  more  saw-cuts  on  its  inner  border.  When  it 
is  desired  to  dilate  the  hoof  equally,  these  cuts  are  made  at 


METHODS    OF  DILATING   THE   FOOT. 


351 


the  centre  opposite  the  toe-chp,  but  when  contraction  has 
taken  pLace  at  the  heel,  the  cnts  are  placed  towards  the  side  of 
the  shoe  at  which  contraction  is  visible. 

(c)  Einsiedel's  automatic    hoof- expanding  shoe  (fig.   336)  is. 


Fig.  334.— Instrument  for  expanding  De  Fay'.s  shoe,     a,  the  iron  cheeks  which  fit  between  the 
heels  of  the  shoe ;  b,  square  head  on  the  right  and  left-handed  screw,  for  taking  the  key. 


an  ordinary  flat  shoe  with  bar-clips,  the  bearing  surfaces  of 
which  are  moderately  inclined  outwards.  After  accurately 
tittincf,  but  before  nailing  the  shoe,  it  is  advisable  to  dilate  the 


352 


DEFORMITIES   AND   DISEASES   OF   THE   HOOF. 


heels  about  -|-  inch.     The  animal's  own  weight  is  the  expanding 
power.     It   produces    its    effect   slowly   but   surely.      In   uni- 


FlG.  335.— Shoe  for  expanding  the  hoof,    a  shows  the  point  where  the  bar-clips  should  come. 

lateral  contraction  the  bearing  surface  of  the  clip  only  inclines 
outwards  on  the  affected   side.      Shoes   with  bar-clips   should 


Fig.  33().— Einsiedel's  shoe,  seen  from  behind. 


not  be  used  when  the  heels  are  very  low  and  when  the  lateral 
clefts  of  the  frog  are  correspondingly  shallow. 

Other  special  shoes  for  promoting  expansion  of  the  foot  are 
•described  in  the  next  two  pages. 


Fig.  337. — Fullered  fore  shoe  (for  harness  horse),  with  frog  plate. 
Made  from  1  x  ^  inch  iron. 


Fig.  338. — Tip  for  producing  frog  pressure.     Made  from  |  x  ^  inch  iron. 


To  face  p.  353.] 


SHOES  FOR  PKODUCING  FKOG  PRESSURE.         ■  353 


FULLERED  EORE  SHOE  (FOE  HAKNESS  HOESE) 
WITH  FEOG  PLATE  (Fig.  337). 

Made  from   1  X  |-  inch  iron. 

To  obtain  frog  pressure  without  interfering  with  the  animal's 
paces,  and  to  widen  the  foot  and  to  promote  the  growth  of  a 
strong  healthy  frog,  are  the  objects  of  this  shoe. 

Care  must  be  taken,  when  fitting  the  shoe,  that  the  frog 
plate  has  a  good  bearing  on  the  frog  itself,  otherwise  it  will 
prove  ineffective.  To  ensure  a  beariug,  it  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  rivet  pieces  of  leather  on  the  frog  plate,  so  as  to  raise 
it  to  the  needful  height. 


TIP  FOE  PEODUCING  FEOG  PEESSUEE 

(Fig.  338). 

Made  from  f-  X  J   inch  iron. 

The  tip  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as  the  ordinary 
pattern,  the  frog  plate  being  made,  and  welded  on  after- 
wards. The  clip  is  then  drawn,  and  the  tip  is  ready  to  fit 
to  the  foot. 

The  plate  must  take  a  good  bearing  on  the  frog  ;  sometimes 
it  is  necessary  to  rivet  on  pieces  of  leather  in  order  to  secure 
frog  pressure. 

The  above  tip  is  very  useful  for  horses  having  one  foot 
smaller  than  the  other.  Its  application  will  often  expand  the 
contracted  foot  to  a  marked  degree,  but  it  requires  care  in 
fitting.  The  quarters  must  be  fitted  full,  to  prevent  the  tip 
sinking  into  foot  at  this  point,  and  splitting  away  the  wall. 
The  frog  plate  should  be  a  trifle  shorter  than  the  animal's 
frog,  otherwise  the  toe  of  the  hind-foot  is  liable  to  catch  it, 
and  tear  off  the  tip. 


354  DEFORMITIES    AND    DISEASES  OF  THE    HOOK 


PROFESSOE  F.  SMITH'S  FORE  SHOE  FOR 
EXPANDING  CONTRACTED  FEET 

(Fig.  339). 

Made  from  |-  X  -I-  inch  iro7i. 

The  diagram  sufficiently  explains  the  construction 'of  the 
shoa 

By  means  of  the  screw,  steady,  but  slight,  pressure  is  exer- 
cised on  the  bars.  Neither  Mr  Dollar  nor  Mr  Wheatley  has 
used  this  shoe,  but  it  has  been  highly  recommended  by  Pro- 
fessor Smith,  who  kindly  lent  the  shoe  from  which  the  illus- 
tration was  made. 

It  will  be  seen  to  closely  resemble  Fourre's  shoe  for  the 
same  purpose. 


Fig.  339. — Professor  F.  Smith's  fore  shoe  for  expanding  contracted  feet. 

Made  from  |  x  J  inch  iron. 


\_  To  face  }).  354. 


SURGICAL   OPERATION    FOR    CONTRACTED   FOOT.  355 


C.  Operative  Interference  in  Contraction. 

(a)  Thinning  the  wall  of  the  toe  was  recommended  by 
Dominik,  but  is  of  little  real  value,  the  improvement  noted 
probably  resulting  from  the  animal's  being  turned  out  to  grass 
without  shoes. 

(&)  Collin's  method  consists  in  making  a  groove  about 
I"  inch  broad  and  as  deep  as  the  sensitive  wall,  beginning 
-|  inch  from  the  skin  of  the  coronet  and  running  parallel  with  it. 
From  this  he  carries  two  wider  grooves  as  far  as  the  lower  margin 
of  the  hoof,  the  posterior  groove  being  about  |  inch  from  the 
heels,  the  anterior  running  obliquely  backwards ;  its  highest 
point  being  about  1^  inches,  its  lowest  about  ^  inch  from  the 
posterior  furrow.  The  wall  of  the  quarter  behind  the  anterior 
furrow  is  lowered  with  the  rasp  until  it  no  longer  touches  the 
shoe.  Where  both  quarters  are  diseased,  the  same  procedure 
is  adopted  on  either  side.  A  bar  shoe  is  then  applied.  When 
the  frog  is  insufficiently  developed  to  afford  the  shoe  proper 
support,  a  leather,  gutta-percha,  or  vulcanised  pad  is  applied, 
and  the  grooves  are  filled  with  ointment,  with  which  the  entire 
hoof  is  dressed.  If  movement  is  painful,  the  feet  can  be 
placed  in  a  foot-bath,  and  poultices  applied,  after  which  lame- 
ness soon  disappears.  Collin's  method  undoubtedly  produces 
good  results  when  the  animal  can  be  rested  for  several  months ; 
otherwise,  the  next  in  order  should  be  tried. 

(c)  Thinning  the  Wall  of  the  Contracted  Heel — A  portion  of 
the  coronary  margin,  about  J  inch  in  breadth,  should  be  left 
intact.  A  bar  shoe  is  then  applied,  which  should  not  touch 
the  heels  by  about  -|-  inch.  The  limbs  of  the  frog  should, 
however,  take  a  good  bearing  on  the  bar  of  the  shoe.  If 
necessary,  the  frog  may  be  filled  up  with  artificial  horn  com- 
position or  a  leather  sole,  and  plenty  of  stopping  applied.  To 
prevent  drying  and  hardening,  the  exposed  parts  should  be 
dressed  with  a  tampon  of  tow  or  wood  wool  saturated  with  tar, 
and  lightly  bandaged.  The  results  are  good ;  the  horn  of  the 
heels  grows  in  a  better  direction,  and  lameness  soon  dis- 
appears. 

(d)  Simple  Incision  below  the  Coronet. — Three-quarters  of  an 
inch  below  the  meeting  of  hair  and  hoof,  parallel  with  it  and 


366 


DEFORMITIES   AND    DISEASES   OF   THE   HOOF. 


to  an  extent  corresponding  to  the  contracted  wall,  an  incision 
is  made  with  a  searcher,  saw,  or  an  instrument  resembling  a 
drawing  chisel,  the  horn  being  removed  as  deep  as  the  laminal 
sheath.  The  groove  is  filled  with  wax.  The  further  treat- 
ment may  comprise  any  of  the  methods  given  under  A.  A 
bar  shoe  taking  a  good  bearing  on  the  frog  succeeds  best  if 
the  horse  cannot  be  completely  rested. 

The  effect  is  shown  by  the  upper  margin  of  the  incision 
overlapping  the  lower  in  consequence  of  expansion  at  the 
coronet.  Cure  results  from  the  portion  of  the  wall  above  the 
incision  growing  down  in  the  normal  direction. 

Many  other  methods  have  been  suggested,  such  as  those  of 
Bracy  Clark,  Coleman,  Fulch,  Barbier,  Beaufils,  etc.,  but  cannot 
be  recommended. 

{B)  Weak  heels  (figs.  340  and  341)  are  sometimes  developed 
to  an  extraordinary  degree.     Being  too  weak  to  carry  the  body- 


FlG.  340.— Contracted  hoof  from  unshod  horse.  This  growth  resulted  from  want  of  move- 
ment and  neglect  of  the  feet,  a,  excessively  long  heels ;  b,  clefts  in  the  region  of  the 
white  line. 


weight  when  the  horse  is  shod,  they  grow  inward  over  the 
posterior  parts  of  the  horny  sole  and  bars ;  indeed  in  some 
cases  over  the  limbs  of  the  frog,  and  cause  bruising,  which  we 
recognise  as  corns.  The  hoof  becomes  narrower,  and  falls 
within  the  definition  of  '  contracted  hoof.' 
:    Weak  heels  are  only  too  common  in  thin,  shelly  feet,  and 


WEAK   HEELS. 


357 


when  occurring  in  flat  hoofs  render  the  animal  useless  for 
rapid  work  on  stone-paved  streets. 

The  best  application  is  a  bar  shoe  and  leather  sole,  the  frog 
resting  on  the  bar,  but  the  heels  being  kept  clear  of  the  shoe. 
The  nail  holes  should  be  confined  to  the  anterior  two-thirds  of 
the  shoe.      Pads,  etc.,  are  of  little  service. 

{C)  Local  Contraction,  or  Contraction  at  the  Coronary 
Margin. — Instead  of  the  wall  of  the  heel  running  in  a  straight 
line  from  the  coronet  to  the  bearing  margin,  it  pursues  a 
curved  course  (fig.  .S42,  a\     This  contraction  affects  either  one 


Fig.  341.— Left  fure-fout  with  weak  heels. 
The  dotted  lines  indicate  the  portion 
to  be  removed. 


Fig.  3'42.— Foot  with  local  contraction. 
a,  the  contracted  spot. 


or  both  heels ;  the  hoof  appears  as  if  drawn  in  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  cord,  and  its  outline  has  been  compared  to  an  hour- 
glass. Occasionally,  instead  of  this  wide  curve,  it  presents 
local  deformities,  but  the  latter  are  most  common  in  flat  hoofs. 

The  horse  goes  in  a  shuffling  style,  or  is  positively  lame, 
especially  at  a  trot.  Pressing  on  the  hoof  with  pincers  pro- 
duces pain,  as  do  light  blows  over  the  contracted  portion  of 
the  wall. 

Broad,  flat  feet  are  especially  disposed  to  this  form  of 
contraction,  though  it  is  also  found  in  hoofs  of  normal  character 
and  in  those  with  turned-out  or  turned-in  toes.  In  upright 
hoofs,  however,  it  never  appears  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce 


358  DEFORMITIES   AND   DISEASES   OF  THE    HOOF. 

lameness,  though  even    hoofs  with  very  strong  walls  do  not 
always  escape  it. 

The  comparative  frequence  after  the  first  shoeing  of  this 
form  of  contraction  in  horses  which  work  on  hard  dry  ground 
leaves  little  doubt  that  desiccation  of  the  hoof  and  want  of 
counter-pressure  are  its  principal  causes,  though  these  again 
depend  upon  the  artificial  conditions  set  up  by  shoeing.  All 
who  have  carefully  studied  the  question  agree  that  the  change 
in  the  normal  direction  of  the  heel  wall  is  produced  by  inter- 
ference with  the  expansion  of  the  hoof.  Dominik,  who  first 
described  the  condition,  refers  it  to  interference  with  expan- 
sion at  the  coronet.  The  tendency  to  contraction  is,  therefore, 
greatest  at  the  coronary  margin.  Fambach  regards  it  as  due 
partly  to  excessive  obliquity  of  the  heel  wall,  and  to  removal 
of  support  from  the  frog.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  pointed 
out  that  almost  all  hoofs  that  show  local  contraction  of  the  heel 
wall  are  otherwise  sound.  The  contraction  at  the  coronary 
margin  probably  results  as  follows : — By  lifting  the  frog  clear 
of  the  ground,  the  shoe  more  or  less  prevents  expansion  of  the 
bearing  margin  of  the  heel.  The  coronary  margin,  being  the 
most  yielding  part,  spreads  outwards  under  the  continuous  strain 
of  the  body-weight.  The  direction  of  the  coronary  papillae  is 
changed,  the  horn  they  secrete  takes  a  more  perpendicular 
course,  and  the  wall,  previously  quite  straight,  shows,  after 
eight  to  ten  days,  an  apparent  slight  contraction  opposite  the 
lower  third  of  the  coronary  groove.  By  grov*^th  from  the 
coronet  the  contracted  part  is  thrust  downwards ;  finally  it 
reaches  the  centre  of  the  heel  wall,  where  it  produces  an 
appearance  resembling  an  hour-glass.  Arrived  at  the  bearing 
margin  it  gradually  disappears  just  as  it  had  appeared  above. 
The  effects,  however,  continue,  for  on  close  observation  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  entire  portion  of  wall  involved  has  become 
more  upright,  so  that  instead  of  pointing  outwards  and  back- 
wards it  now  points  forwards  and  inwards.  In  other  words, 
the  heel  walls  previously  diverged ;  now  they  converge.  The 
hoof  has  become  narrower  at  the  bearing  margin  of  the  heels. 
When  the  weight  is  greater  on  one  side  and  the  hoof  very 
flat,  well-marked  furrows  may  appear  on  one  or  other  heel  wall, 
as  can  be  proved  by  comparative  measurements  of  the  hoof 
immediately  before  the  first  shoeing  and  a  few  weeks  or  months 


CONTRACTION   AT   CORONARY  MARGIN   OF   HOOF.  359 

later.  Eest  in  the  stable  will  produce  similar  results.  The 
causes  are  shoeing,  deiicient  frog  support,  desiccation,  and 
insufficient  exercise. 

The  prognosis  is  favourable  and  lameness  disappears  when 
the  contraction  has  grown  down  as  far  as  the  lower  third  of 
the  wall.  When  it  affects  only  the  posterior  part  of  the  heel 
it  can  be  removed  in  two  or  three  shoeings,  but  if  the  feet  are 
flat  and  the  contraction  extends  further  forward  it  may  persist 
for  a  much  longer  time.  Treatment  consists  in  paring  the 
hoof,  so  as  to  produce  a  level  tread  and  straight  foot  axis  ; 
the  use  of  shoes  of  a  thickness  proportioned  to  the  animal's  size 
a,nd  work,  and  such  as  will  allow  the  frog  to  bear  weight. 
The  bearing  surface  of  the  shoe  should  be  horizontal  at  the 
heels  :  the  other  portions  may  be  horizontal  or  inclined  slightly 
inwards,  depending  on  whether  the  sole  is  concave,  flat,  or  con- 
vex. If  the  frog  is  well  developed  and  projects  below  the  wall 
an  ordinary  thin-heeled  shoe  is  most  suitable,  as  it  allows  the 
frog  to  touch  the  ground.  If,  however,  the  frog  is  low  or 
badly  developed,  a  bar  shoe  is  preferable.  With  this  the  neces- 
sary frog  pressure  can  generally  be  produced,  even  when  the 
frog  is  affected  with  thrush.  In  such  case  the  frog  is  cleansed 
and  disinfected,  well  smeared  with  tar  or  Venice  turpentine, 
and  the  bar  shoe,  provided  with  a  leather  sole  and  plenty  of 
stopping,  nailed  on.  Needless  to  say  any,  portions  of  the  wall 
which  appear  painful  must  be  eased,  that  is,  where  it  is 
impracticable  to  sufficiently  seat  out  the  shoe,  a  sHght  amount 
must  be  removed  from  the  bearing  surface  directly  below,  before 
affixing  the  shoe. 

In  cases  of  even  well-marked  lameness  thinning  of  the  heel 
wall  and  four  to  eight  days  continued  poulticing  is  often 
sufficient.  The  hoof  should  be  kept  moist  and  the  animal 
exercised  at  a  walk. 

This  treatment  is  not  directed  towards  preventing  contraction 
at  the  bearing  surface,  but  only  aims  at  restoring  the  natural 
counter-pressure  of  the  ground  and  thus  promoting  expansion  of 
the  hoof.  Other  means  of  relieving  the  heels  and  forcing  the 
frog  to  bear  a  certain  amount  of  weight,  like  the  use  of  tips, 
filling  the  hoof  with  elastic  cement,  etc.,  are  sometimes  found 
advantageous.  So  far  as  its  occurrence,  position,  and  treatuicnt 
are   concerned,   contraction   of   the   coronary   margin   may   be 


360  DEFORMITIES   AND   DISEASES   OF   THE   HOOF. 

regarded  as  a  modification  of  ordinary  contraction,  for  the  main 
differences  between  them  are — the  former  affects  flat,  spreading 
feet  and  only  the  extreme  posterior  part  of  the  heel  region, 
whilst  ordinary  contraction  is  commonest  in  upright  feet  and 
affects  both  quarters  and  heels.  Many  other  sub-divisions  of 
contracted  hoof  are  described  by  German  writers  but  have 
little  interest  for  English  readers,  the  practical  advantages  of 
such  classification  being  almost  nil. 

5.  The  Laterally  Distorted  Hoof 

is  produced  by  one  quarter  and  heel  being  upright,  while  the 
other  takes  a  slanting  direction.  Such  a  hoof,  therefore,  when 
cut  through  its  longer  diameter  consists  of  two  unequal  portions. 
It  has  previously  been  remarked  that  oblique  limbs  usually 
have  oblique  hoofs,  which  may,  therefore,  be  termed  normal 
oblique  hoofs  and  which  should  not  be  regarded  as  pathological. 
In  determining  whether  a  hoof  of  this  description  really  is 
pathological,  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  direction  of  the 
walls  when  viewed  from  behind  and  the  width  of  the  back  of 
the  hoof.  When  one-half  of  the  wall  runs  from  above  down- 
wards and  inwards,  i.e.,  towards  the  middle  line  of  the  hoof,  and 
the  corresponding  half  of  the  frog  is  smaller  than  its  fellow,  the 
hoof  is  abnormal.  The  condition,  in  fact,  may  be  regarded 
as  imilateral  contraction.  Similar  distortion  is  produced  by 
faulty  paring  of  the  hoof. 

Causes. — Whilst  in  normal  oblique  hoofs  the  primary  cause 
is  almost  always  bad  conformation  of  the  limb,  and  consequent 
unequal  distribution  of  weight,  in  pathological  oblique  hoofs  the 
same  unequal  distribution  of  weight  is  aided  by  excessive  par- 
ing or  wear  of  the  upright  half  of  the  wall.  All  faults  in 
shoeing  which  favour  contraction  promote  this  condition, 
especially  when  they  affect  the  upright  wall.  One  of  the 
most  fertile  causes  is  neglect  of  the  hoof  during  the  first  year& 
of  life. 

The  degree  to  which  this  malformation  may  be  developed 
varies  immensely.  In  some,  the  upright  wall  is  drawn  inwards, 
and  the  corresponding  limb  of  the  frog  almost  entirely  atrophied  * 
in  others,  the  (previously)  normal  wall  may  be  affected  as  well, 
being  bent  outwards  and  exhibiting  a  convex  surface. 


TREATMENT   OF   LATERAL   DISTORTION. 


361 


Prognosis. — When  the  distortion  of  the  hoof  is  a  result  of 
the  deformation  of  the  limb,  and  the  old  shoe  shows  com- 
paratively level  wear,  the  condition  is  not  serious.  If,  however, 
the  hoof  is  much  deformed,  the  liorn  of  the  wall  weak,  the  wall 
itself  curved  inwards,  and  if,  in  addition,  other  disease  exists, 
improvement  is  difficult  and  affected  animals  are  of  little  use 
for  work  on  hard  roads,  least  of  all  at  a  rapid  pace. 

Hoofs  so  deformed  show  a  great  tendency  to  disease,  the  up- 
right wall  always  suffering  first ;  corns  and  sandcracks  are  of 
frequent  occurrence. 

The  style  of  shoeing  depends  on  the  degree  of  disease  and  on 
the  conformation  of  the  limb,  the  two  chief  objects  being  to- 
remove  or  minimise  existing  defects  and  to  promote  the  return 
of  the  foot  to  its  normal  shape. 

The  hoof  must  be  trimmed  so  as  to  make  the  tread  level, 
the  bars  and  sole  of  the  upright  side  being  left  stronger  than 
those  of  the  opposite,  for  a  strong  sole  and  well  developed  bar 


Fig.  343.— Bar  shoe  for  laterally  distorted  hoof,    a,  the  upright  (contracted)  wall ;  6,  the 

spot  over  which  the  hoof  is  '  spruug.' 

prevent  contraction  of  the  wall  better  than  any  special  shoe. 
Flat  shoes  {i.e.,  without  heels)  are  most  suitable,  because  they 
favour  a  level  tread  and  equalise  wear. 

Too  much  weight  may  be  thrown  on  the  upright  wall,  a& 
happens  when,  during  the  extension  of  the  fetlock  joint,  the 
fetlock,  instead  of  remaining  behind  the  middle  line  of  the  hoof, 
tends  to  assume  a  position  above  the  contracted  coronary  mar- 
gin of  the  heel.  In  such  case  an  attempt  should  be  made  to- 
relieve  the  contracted  wall  of  weight.  The  hoof  is,  therefore, 
trimmed  so  that  the  upriglit  wall  comes  in  contact  with  the 
ground  before  its  fellow  when  the  animal  is  walked.      Unless 


362 


DEFOEMITIES  AND   DISEASES   OF  THE   HOOF. 


striking  is  to  be  feared  the  limb  of  the  shoe  covering  the  up- 
right wall  should  be  fitted  as  full  as  possible,  the  extreme  edge 
being  perpendicularly  beneath  the  coronary  margin  of  the  con- 
tracted wall,  whilst  that  on  the  sound  side  should  exactly  fit 
the  wall. 

A  bar  shoe  is  even  more  useful,  especially  when  the  bulbs  of 
the  frog  are  displaced ;  the  shoe,  however,  should  be  fitted  as 
described  and  the  bar  should  take  a  bearing  on  the  outer  limb 
of  the  frog  (fig.  343). 

Pathologically  oblique  hoofs  may  also  be  treated  with  De 
Fay's  dilating  shoe  (see  '  De  Fay's  shoe '),  the  notches  on  the 
inner  margin  of  the  shoe  being  made  at  the  same  side  as  the 
deformed  wall,  so  that  the  effects  may  be  confined  to  that  side. 
If  the  hoof  has  been  pared  unevenly  and  the  disproportion  in 
the  height  of  the  two  walls  cannot  be  removed  by  trimming 
the  horn,  the  parts  may  be  built  up  by  using  some  gutta-percha 
'Composition. 

Once  improvement  occurs  and  the  upright  wall  assumes  the 


Tig.  344.— Right  hind-foot  of  foal  with  three-quarter  shoe  of  unequal  thickness.    Tlie  foot  ■ 
is  thus  tipped  inwards,    b,  untouched  bar ;  c,  bar  cut  back. 

same  direction  as  the  limb,  while  the  posterior  portions  of  the 
hoof  are  of  nearly  normal  width,  treatment  should  cease,  as  its 
continuance  may  produce  other  evils. 

The  distortion  of  the  hoof  sometimes  seen  in  unshod  young 
horses  cannot  always  be  cured  by  paring  and  rasping  the  hoof, 


LATERAL   DISTORTION   AND   CURVATURE   OF    HOOF. 


363 


•and  a  special  shoe  becomes  necessary.  The  heel  is  thick  on 
the  same  side  as  the  contracted  wall,  and  the  shoe  gradually 
becomes  thinner  from  this  point  to  its  termination  (fig.  344). 
In  severe  cases  the  shoe  need  only  extend  as  far  as  the  centre 
•of  the  quarter  (three-quarter  shoe). 

6.  The  Curved  Hoof. 

The  form  of  this  hoof  is  well  seen  in  fig.  345.  One  side  is 
bent  outwards,  the  other  inwards,  so  that  when  viewed  from  in 
front  they  respectively  appear  convex  and  concave.  Exagger- 
.ated  cases  of  this  distortion  are  uncommon. 


Fig.  345.— Right  fore-foot  showing  lateral  curvature. 

The  causes  are  unequal  distribution  of  weight  and  unequal 
wear ;  in  unshod  horses  and  foals  neglect  of  the  hoof  is  a  fertile 
'Cause.  The  curvature  is  often  accompanied  by  contraction.  In 
older  (shod)  horses  the  same  condition  may  be  produced  by 
injudicious  trimming  of  the  hoof  and  by  shoes  badly  made  or 
fitted.  If,  for  instance,  one  or  other  quarter  is  left  too  high 
for  several  shoeings,  the  corresponding  side  of  the  wall  (fig. 
346,  a)  becomes  convex,  whilst  its  fellow  tends  to  become  con- 
•cave  (b).  Such  distortion  is  favoured,  for  instance,  by  the  outer 
half  of  the  shoe  being  fitted  too  narrow  in  comparison  with  the 
■circumference  of  the  hoof  and  the  opposite  portion  too  wide. 
The  bowing  of  the  hoof  always  sets  in  from  above. 

Prognosis. — As  a  rule  in  curved  hoofs  the  column  formed 


364 


DEFORMITIES   AND   DISEASES   OF   THE   HOOF. 


by  the  pastern,  coronet,  and  pedal  bones  is  twisted  to  one  side^ 
i.e.,  there  is  lateral  distortion  of  the  foot  axis,  the  greater  angle 
being  directed  towards  the  convex  side  of  the  hoof.  In  conse- 
quence the  weight  of  the  body  is  unequally  distributed  over  the 
articular  surfaces  of  the  coronet  and  pedal  joints,  there  is  a 
tendency  to  bruising  of  the  bones,  while  the  lateral  ligaments- 
of  these  joints  are  exposed  to  strain. 

The  chief  indication  in  treatment  is  to  restore  the  normal 
position  of  the  hoof.  The  convex  half  of  the  wall  (fig.  346,  a)  is 
usually  too  high  and  too  narrow,  the  opposite  half  (&)  too  low 
and  too  wide.  The  indications  for  fitting  are,  therefore,  plain. 
The  bearing  surface  of  the  shoe  corresponding  to  the  high  and 
narrow  side  should  be  as  wide  as  possible.      A  straight-edge 


I'lG.  346. — Cross  section  of  a  right  fore-foot,  showing  hiteral  curvature.    The  horse  turns  his- 
toes  outwards.    «,  convex  outer  wall ;  6,°concave  inner  wall.    The  line  c-d  shows  how 
much  too  high  is  the  outer  wall.    The  lines  c-e  and  g-h  show  the  points  to  which  the 
outer  and  inner  limlis  of  the  shoe  must  respectivelj-  be  produced  ;  /  indicates  the  amount 
of  horn  to  be  removed. 

laid  on  the  convex  half  of  the  wall  only  touches  it  in  the 
centre,  and  the  point  at  which  it  meets  the  (imaginary)  pro- 
longation of  the  bearing  surface  shows  how  far  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  shoe  should  extend  outwards.  The  opposite  half 
of  the  wall  exhibits  a  concavity  at  the  centre.  With  the- 
straight-edge  it  is  easy  to  determine  how  much  of  the  lower 
margin  must  be  removed  before  fitting  the  shoe. 

The  cure  of  this  deformity  requires  considerable  time. 


CHAPTER    III. 

SOLUTIONS  OF  CONTINUITY  IN  TRE  HORN. 

1.  Sandcracks. 


A  SAKDCRACK  is  a  lissure  in  the  wall  running  parallel  with  the 
direction  of  the  horn  fibres.      Its  position,  length,  and  depth 


Fig.  347. — Hoof  showing  sandcracks  at  coronary  and  at  bearing  margin,  and  a  sandcrack 
extending  throughout  the  wall.  The  latter  exhibits  a  nail  inserted  for  the  purpose  of 
'  riveting '  the  crack  (semi-diagrammatic). 

are  all  of  importance  in  determining  its  probable  results  and 
the  proper  treatment  to  adopt. 

According  to  position  we  distinguish  sandcracks  of  the  toe, 
quarter,  heel,  and  bar.  Some  afiPect  the  coronary  margin,  some 
the  bearing  margin,  while  some  extend  from  one  margin  to  the 
other  of  the  wall ;  some  are  superficial,  others  penetrate  the 
thickness  of  the  horn  wall.  There  is  little  difficulty  in  recog- 
nising sandcrack,  except  when  a  slight  fissure  has  just  com- 
menced at  the  coronet  and  the  hoot  has  been  dressed  with  an 
ointment  or  when  the  crack  has  been  filled  up.  To  avoid 
overlooking  such  cases  the  hoof  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed 
before  examination.  Deep  cracks  which  extend  from  top  to 
bottom  of  the  wall  are  easily  seen,  because  bleeding  often  occurs 
when  the  animal  is  worked,  and  lameness  is  a  frequent  though 
not  a  constant  feature.  "VYhen  of  old  standing,  and  involving 
the  entire  thickness  of  the  wall,  sandcracks  show  prominent 
edges,  which  sometimes  overlap  and  which  are  very  noticeable. 


366  SOLUTIONS  OF  CONTINUITY   IN   THE  HORN. 

The  depth  of  the  crack  may  be  measured  with  a  nail  beateo 
flat  at  the  point.  Some  sandcracks  are  '  open,'  others  are 
'  closed '  or  only  slightly  open. 

The  causes  comprise :  injuries  destroying  a  portion  of  the 
coronary  band  and  thus  leading  to  changes  in  the  character  of 
the  wall ;  excessive  tension  at  the  coronary  margin  in  upright 
feet  (producing  sandcrack  of  the  toe)  and  in  flat  and  con- 
tracted hoofs  (sandcrack  of  the  quarter).  Fissuring  is  favoured 
by  weakness  of  the  wall,  drying  of  the  horn,  bad  fitting  of  the 
shoe,  '  springing '  the  heels  when  shoeing  with  ordinary  shoes, 
in  the  case  of  carriage  horses  by  trotting  work  on  hard,  rough, 
or  frozen  streets,  and  in  riding  horses  by  trotting,  galloping,  or 
jumping  with  a  heavy  rider.  Sandcracks  sometimes  start 
from  the  bearing  margin,  as  when  horses  are  turned  out  without 
shoes  and  without  the  hoofs  having  been  rounded  off;  when 
the  bearing  surface  of  the  shoe  is  uneven,  and  when  the 
counter-sinks  allow  the  nails  to  penetrate  too  far  or  when  the 
nails  themselves  are  too  large. 

Prognosis. — Sandcracks  vary  in  gravity  according  to  their 
cause  and  position.  The  most  troublesome,  perhaps,  are  those 
resulting  from  excessive  strain  on  the  coronary  margin  produced 
by  unequal  distribution  of  weight,  because  recovery  then 
depends  upon  the  downward  growth  of  an  unbroken  mass  of  horn 
from  the  coronary  band,  and  this  again  depends  upon  the  length 
of  the  crack.  The  animal  may  be  useless  for  months,  for  a 
time,  in  fact,  sufficient  for  the  hoof  to  be  entirely  renewed. 
During  this  period  fresh  cracks  may  develop  if  attempts  are 
made  to  use  the  horse  for  trotting,  galloping,  or  jumping,  and 
again  postpone  recovery  or  seriously  imperil  it.  Cracks  result- 
ing from  wounds  of  the  coronary  band  are  also  grave,  especially 
when  a  portion  of  the  horn-secreting  structure  is  destroyed. 
On  the  other  hand,  those  due  to  drying  of  the  horn  or  to  bad 
shoeing  are  unimportant,  provided  the  hoofs  are  well-shaped 
and  sound.     The  same  is  true  of  cracks  at  the  bearing  surface. 

Treatment. — Eecovery  is  assisted  by  fixing  the  opposing 
margins  of  the  crack  firmly  in  position,  thus  preventing  the 
new  horn  from  being  torn  through.  Immobilisation  of  the 
edges  is  not,  however,  the  principal  point,  and  it  is  much  more 
important  to  attend  to  the  distribution  of  weight  in  the  hoof 
and  to  improvement  of  its  form. 


METHODS  OF  FIXING  TOGETHER  EDGES  OF   SANDCRACK.       367 

The  margins  of  the  crack  may  be  fixed  together  by  one  of 
the  followincj  methods  : — 

1.  By  means  of  clips,  vvliich  may  be  either  bought  ready 
made  or  fashioned  out  of  thin  rod  iron  by  the  farrier  himself. 
A  depression  to  receive  the  clip  is  made  in  the  horn  by  apply- 
ing a  specially  shaped  red-hot  iron.  The  clip  is  then  placed 
in  position  and  the  ends  pressed  inwards  by  means  of  special 
pincers.  The  operation  should  be  performed  while  the  animal 
stands  on  the  foot,  and  the  clip,  which  sliould  be  sunk  almost 
flush  with  the  wall,  applied  immediately  after  removing  the 
iron,  because  then  the  horn  is  soft  and  allows  the  points  to^ 


penetrate,  while  it  ensures  the  clip  holding  firmly.  According 
to  the  length  of  the  crack  one  to  three  clips  may  be  applied. 
This  method  is  only  applicable  to  sandcracks  around  the  toe 
and  in  strong  hoofs. 

2.  By  metal  plates  (fig.  351),  fastened  with  small  wood 
screws  corresponding  in  length  to  the  thickness  of  the  outer 
sheath  of  the  wall.  For  quarter  and  heel  cracks  shorter  but 
broader  plates  are  used,  in  which  the  screws  are  applied  one 
below  the  other.  The  plate  is  slightly  countersunk  before 
being  screwed  on,  by  heating  to  a  dull  red  and  pressing  it  on 
the  proper  spot.  Plates  can  be  used  for  any  kind  of  crack, 
except  those  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the  heel.  They  appear  to 
have  given  satisfaction. 

3.  By  rivets.  One  or  two  specially  prepared  horse  nails  are- 
driven  through  the  borders  of  the  crack  and  afterwards  clenched 
in  the  usual  way.  The  operation  is  rendered  easier  by  boring 
or  burning  the  holes  for  the  rivets  beforehand.  This  is  the 
oldest  process  and  if  carefully  performed  is  very  successful,  but 
can  be  employed  only  at  the  toe  and  quarters. 

4.  By  means  of  the  special  teethed  sandcrack  band  invented 
by  Koster.  The  hoof  is  cleansed,  the  edges  of  the  crack,  if 
necessary,  smoothed,  and  grooves  for  inserting  the  jaws  of  the 


368  SOLUTIONS   OF   CONTINUITY  IN   THE   HORN. 

band  burnt  with  a  special  iron.  The  band  is  then  inserted 
from  above  in  the  grooves  and  driven  downwards  to  close  the 
crack.  This  band  holds  exceedingly  well,  and  in  consequence 
of  the  toothed  edge  it  never  slips  back ;  nevertheless,  it  some- 
times has  a  tendency  to  produce  fresh  splits  in  the  horn  at  the 
spot  where  the  grooves  have  been  burnt. 

5.  By  means  of  sandcrack  straps  (fig.  350).  These  are 
intended  to  hold  the  edges  of  the  crack  firmly  together.  The 
broad,  enlarged,  and  concave  portion  of  the  strap  lies  around 
the  coronet.  A  mass  of  tow  moistened  with  some  fatty 
material  is  placed  below  it  and  the  whole  drawn  together. 
The  strap  is   removed   every   three   or  four   days,   the   crack 


Fig.  350.— Sandcrack  strap. 

•cleansed  and  a  fresh  tampon  of  tow  applied.  The  advantages 
stated  by  Schleg  are:  (1)  it  allows  of  permanent  application  of 
fatty  materials,  which  render  the  horn  more  elastic,  and  assist 
the  normal  growth  from  the  coronet,  while  it  prevents  the 
separation  of  the  edges  ;  (2)  it  can  be  used  along  with  any  other 
method  of  fixation ;  and  (3)  it  can  be  used  as  a  preventive  on 
brittle  hoofs.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to  draw  it  sufficiently 
tisfht. 

6.  By  means  of  broad  linen  tape.  After  applying  a  mass  of 
tow  moistened  with  tar,  fat,  or  oil  to  the  coronet,  the  tape  is 
moistened  and  wound  firmly  round  the  upper  part  of  the  hoof. 
The  ends  are  tied  or  sewn  together,  and  the  whole  is  then 
smeared  with  tar.  This  dressing,  which  acts  somewhat  like 
the  strap,  remains  in  position  until  the  next  shoeing. 

7.  To  check  the  continued  opening  and  closing  of  the  crack, 
a  shoe  with  '  bar-clips,'  fitted  closely  to  the  bar  of  the  foot  on 
either  side,  has  been  successfully  employed.  By  diminishing 
expansion  at  the  heels,  this  shoe  lessens  movement  in  all  other 
parts  and  prevents  the  sensitive  tissues  being  nipped  between 
•the  margins  of  the  crack. 


USE   OF   STRAPS,   TAPE,    ETC.,    FOR   SANDCRACK. 


369 


The  methods  1  to  4  are  applicable  where  the  crack 
follows  the  direction  of  the  horny  fibres,  but  are  of  no  value 
where  the  margins  are  irregular,  zigzag,  wavy,  or  overlapping. 
In  the  latter  case  the  parts  should  be  thoroughly  thinned  with 
a  rasp  or  fine  searcher,  but  bleeding  should  be  avoided.  The 
animal  is  then  shod  and  the  strap  (5)  or  linen  tape  applied. 
All  these  methods  act  by  bringing  the  edges  of  the  crack 
together,  and  minimising  movement  at  the  coronet. 

Grosswendt  in  1888  suggested  another  method  for  use  in  spe- 
cial cases.  As  the  crack  was  open  and  filled  with  granulations 
from  the  sensitive  parts,  riveting  would  have  been  useless  (or 
worse).  Grosswendt,  therefore,  applied  a  wooden  wedge,  thrust 
between  the  edges  of  the  crack,  thus  holding  it  open.  With 
suitable  local  treatment  he  effected  a  cure. 


(a)  Sanclcrack  originating  at  the   Coronary  Margin 

is  the  form  most  commonly  seen.  In  seeking  the  best  method 
•of  shoeing  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  everything  which 
renders  the  hoof  broad  and  strong,  improves  its  form,  and 
relieves  the  diseased  portion  of  the  wall  of  pressure,  favours 
recovery.  Accordingly,  tips,  dilating  shoes,  bar  shoes,  and  stop- 
pings which  cause  counter-pressure  on  the  sole  assist  recovery. 


Fig.  351.— Hodf  shod  for  sandcrack  of  the  toe. 


Fig.  352.— Hoof  shod  with  l)ar  shoe  for 
quarter  crack.  The  part  of  the  waU 
which  has  been  '  eased'  is  shown  by 
dotted  lines. 


1.  Toe  sandcrack  is  best  treated  bv  trimmincr  the  hoof  so 
as  to  give  a  level  tread  and  by  applying  a  shoe  with  two  toe- 
clips.  The  nail  holes  should  be  punched  somewhat  further 
back  than  usual.  The  edges  of  the  crack  may  be  fixed  together 
by  metal  plates  (fig.  351)  or  by  the  insertion  of  a  few  rivets  or 

2  A 


370  SOLUTIONS   OF  CONTINUITY  IN  THE   HORN. 

special  clips.  The  choice  of  these  must  be  determined  by  the 
position  and  character  of  the  crack.  Bar  shoes  are  only  resorted 
to  when  the  bearing  surface  of  the  wall  is  defective. 

2.  Quarter  and  heel  cracks  are  best  treated  by  the  use  of 
bar  shoes.  Before  nailing  on,  the  portion  of  the  wall  below 
and  behind  the  crack  should  be  lowered  so  as  to  relieve  it  of 
weight.  The  exact  area  from  which  to  remove  horn  can  be 
judged  as  follows.  The  crack  is  prolonged  in  imagination  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  horn  hbres  until  it  reaches  the 
bearing  surface.  From  the  upper  end  of  the  crack  an  im- 
aginary vertical  line  is  dropped  to  the  bearing  surface  of  the 
hoof.  The  portion  comprised  between  these  two  lines  is  then 
lowered  sufficiently  to  prevent  any  pressure  on  that  part 
until  the  next  time  of  shoeing  (fig.  852).  Another,  and  per- 
haps preferable,  method  is  to  seat  out  the  shoe  at  the  points 
indicated,  leaving  the  wall  untouched. 

The  same  rule  applies  to  cracks  at  the  heel,  even  when 
the  imaginary  vertical  line  falls  behind  the  bearing  surface. 
Stoppings  are  of  value  because  they  convey  a  portion  of  the 
body-weight  to  the  sole  and  frog,  lead  to  expansion  of  the  hoof, 
and  diminish  concussion  during  movement,  all  of  which  tend 
to  prevent  the  new  horn  from  cracking. 

When  the  crack  is  widely  open  and  the  frog  small,  or  when 
the  hoof  is  contracted,  a  shoe  with  bar-clips  may  be  employed. 

If  the  edges  of  the  crack  are  irregular  or  overlapping,  all 
projecting  parts  should  be  removed.  To  assist  the  growth  of 
sound  wall  and  diminish  the  tendency  to  fresh  fissures,  the 
upper  portions  of  the  wall  near  the  crack  should  be  thinned, 
the  hoof  kept  moist,  and  a  sandcrack  boot  or  tape  applied. 
French  clips  are  not  advisable  in  cracks  of  the  quarter,  and 
are  distinctly  injurious  in  cracks  of  the  heel.  To  prevent 
the  fissure  extending  further,  a  furrow  may  be  burnt  or  cut 
at  its  extreme  end,  and  at  right  angles  to  its  general  direction. 
The  furrow  is  made  at  the  lower  end  of  cracks  starting  from 
the  coronet,  and  at  the  upper  end  of  those  starting  from  the 
bearing  margin  of  the  wall. 

Blisters  of  cantharides  or  biniodide  of  mercury  are  some- 
times applied  to  the  coronet  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  horn. 
The  wall  secreted  is  found  to  be  thicker  than  before.  Animals 
suffering   from  sandcrack   often  recover  without  treatment   if 


SANDCKACK  OF  CORONAEY  MARGIN  AND  BARS.      371 

turned  out  barefooted,  though  an  exception  must  be  made  as 
regards  those  with  sandcrack  starting  from  the  bearing 
surface. 

If  during  the  first  few  days  there  is  inflammation  and  lame- 
ness cold  poultices  may  be  applied.  When  lameness  is  absent 
horses  may  be  used  for  slow  work.  Carriage  and  riding  horses 
should  not  be  used  at  a  fast  pace  until  at  least  half  an  inch  of 
sound  horn  has  grown. 


O' 


(b)  Sandcrack  of  the  Bars 

nearly  always  results  from  deformity  of  the  heels,  produced  by 
contraction  or  by  allowing  the  heels  to  become  too  high.  It 
almost  invariably  affects  fore-feet  and  is  generally  accompanied 
by  corns.  When  it  exposes  the  sensitive  structures,  superficial 
inflammation  and  lameness  supervene.  The  limb  is  knuckled 
over  at  the  fetlock  during  rest,  and  unless  treatment  is  at  once 
commenced,  the  inflammation  extends  to  deeper-seated  struc- 
tures as  far  even  as  the  plantar  cushion,  the  bulb  of  the  heel  on 
the  afi'ected  side  shows  tumefaction  and  severe  lameness  results, 
which  demands  the  attention  of  the  veterinary  surgeon. 

The  bars  form  part  of  the  most  yielding  portion  of  the  hoof. 
The  crack  alternately  opens  and  shuts  during  movement  and 
tends  to  increase  in  length,  while  the  sensitive  parts  become 
irritated  and  inflamed.  By  paring  the  parts  after  removal  of 
the  shoe,  the  split  is  seen  as  a  black  line,  which  exudes  a 
little  of  the  grey  horn  pus,  or,  in  severe  cases,  even  blood. 
Treatment  should  be  directed  towards  producing  a  fresh  growth 
of  sound  horn.  The  borders  of  the  crack  are  to  be  entirely 
removed,  the  surrounding  horn  thoroughly  thinned,  and  the 
affected  heel  wall  relieved  of  all  shoe  pressure.  The  heel  w^all 
is  lowered  and  a  bar  shoe  with  leather  sole  and  stopping 
applied.  Eemoval  of  the  margins  of  the  crack  may  leave  a 
deep  groove,  especially  in  upright  hoofs.  If  the  bottom  of 
this  groove  appears  moist,  a  little  tampon  of  tow  moistened 
with  tincture  of  myrrh  or  aloes  is  inserted,  and  the  space 
filled  with  wax.  The  crack  gradually  closes,  if  due  precautions 
be  taken. 


372  SOLUTIONS   OF   CONTINUITY  IN   THE   HORN. 

(c)   Cracks  at  the  Bearing  Margin  of  the  Wall 

are  commonest  in  unshod  horses,  and  result  from  excessive 
outward  strain  on  this  part.  They  can  generally  be  prevented 
by  rounding  off  the  lower  edge  of  the  wall  with  a  rasp  before 
turning  the  horse  out.  In  shoeing,  such  cracks  may  result 
from  the  use  of  large  nails,  especially  when  the  nail  holes  are 
punched  too  near  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe. 

Every  crack  at  the  coronet  may  in  time  extend  to  the 
bearing  surface.  To  prevent  such  cracks  in  unshod  horses  it 
is  usually  sufficient  to  shoe  them,  but  in  horses  already  shod 
attention  must  be  given  to  the  position  of  the  nail  holes  and 
the  use  of  thinner  nails.  The  bearing  surface  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  crack  should  be  lowered  in  the  way  afterwards 
described.  To  prevent  the  crack  extending,  a  deep  transverse 
furrow  is  cut  or  burnt  at  its  upper  end. 

2.  Transverse  Cracks  of  the  Wall 

may  occur  at  any  point ;  they  are  generally  seen  at  the  inner 
quarter  and  toe,  as  a  result  of  treads  from  sharp  or  faulty 
calkins.  Pus  from  suppurating  corns,  etc.,  may  break  through 
at  the  coronet,  and  produce  the  same  result  by  interrupting, 
for  a  time,  the  connection  between  the  horn  and  coronary 
band.  Such  cracks  are  occasionally  seen  at  the  heel,  the  horn 
fibres  having  broken  across,  owing  to  dryness  and  contraction 
of  the  horn.  They  are  not  of  much  importance,  and  need  only 
attract  attention  when  they  come  within  the  region  embraced 
by  the  nails. 

In  order  to  avoid  disfiguring  the  hoof,  the  horn  below  the 
cleft  should  be  preserved  as  long  as  possible,  the  wall  at  this 
point  being  lowered  and  kept  clear  of  the  shoe.  If,  however, 
the  piece  becomes  loose,  it  is  better  to  remove  it  and  fill  up 
the  resulting  cavity  with  gutta-percha  or  some  composition. 


3.  Loose  Wall,   Seedy  Toe,  etc. 

{a)  When  at  any  point  in  the  white  line  the  connection 
between  the  wall  and  sole  is  destroyed,  the  resulting  condition 
is  described  as  '  loose  wall.' 


SANDCRACK,   LOOSE   WALL,   AND   SEEDY   TOE.  373 

It  is  commoner  in  fore  than  in  hind  feet,  and  at  the  inner 
than  at  the  outer  side.  Taken  as  a  whole  it  is  not  of  in- 
frequent occurrence,  though  it  only  attracts  notice  when  it 
extends  to  the  soft  parts  and  makes  the  horse  lame.  On 
account  of  this  fact  an  artificial  division  between  superficial 
and  deep-seated  loose  wall  has  been  made.  The  latter  causes 
lameness  by  reason  of  the  separation  extending  towards  the 
lower  margin  of  the  sensitive  wall  and  there  producing  super- 
ficial intlammation  or  even  pus  formation. 

Loose  wall  can  only  be  detected  with  certainty  by  removing 
the  shoe  and  searching  the  foot,  although  its  presence  may 
sometimes  be  guessed  by  the  bulging  of  the  lower  margin  of 
the  wall   (fig.   353,  a). 

The  prognosis  depends  on  whether  the  separation  is  super- 
ficial or  deep,  and  whether  it  involves  a  large  portion  of  the 
wall.  Separations  occasioning  lameness  are,  like  sandcracks, 
apt   to   be   very   troublesome. 


..  (X. 


Fig.  353. — Vertical  section  of  a  hoof  (semi-diagrammatic),    a,  loose  waU ;  b,  seedy  wall 

(the  process  has  extended  furthei'). 

The  causes  of  loose  wall  are  various.  When  the  wall 
forms  an  oblique  angle  with  the  ground,  it  is  more  liable  to 
separate  than  when  upright.  Wide,  fiat  hoofs,  therefore,  are 
its  commonest  seat,  but  laterally  distorted  and  contracted  hoofs 
also  exhibit  the  condition.  The  soft  horn  composing  the  white 
line  is  doubtless  largely  responsible  for  the  occurrence  of 
separations,  offering,  as  it  does,  little  resistance  to  the 
ammoniacal  fluids,  etc.,  to  which  it  is  so  often  exposed,  and 
suffering  more  severely  than  contiguous  parts  from  the  heat  of 
the  shoe  when  applied  for  fitting.  Contact  with  manure  alters 
its  nature,  the  heat  of  the  shoe  dries  it,  and  causes  cracks  and 
irregular  strains  in  different  portions,  while  the  downward 
progress  of  the  wall,  which  rather  favours  tension  and  cracking 
of  the  sole  even  when  sound,  contributes  to  the  production  of 


374  SOLUTIONS   OF   CONTINUITY  IN  THE   HORN. 

loose  wall.  Front  feet  suffer  more  frequently,  because  they 
are  kept  drier  and  carry  greater  weight.  Eapid  work  on 
hard  ground  and  faulty  fitting  of  the  shoe  are  also  frequent 
causes.  Narrowness  of  the  bearing  surfaces  and  an  inclination 
outwards  at  the  heels  particularly  favour  separation. 

Loose  wall  can  only  be  cured  by  the  downw^ard  growth  of 
healthy  horn.  In  this  case  the  old  advice  to  remove  the 
cause  is  especially  applicable.  Careful  preparation  of  the 
hoof  is  of  great  importance.  The  connection  between  the  wall 
and  sole  should  never  be  weakened,  though  all  '  seedy '  and 
broken-down  horn  must  be  removed,  and  the  bearing  surfaces 
should  be  made  as  broad  as  possible  by  allowing  the  shoe  to 
slightly  overlap  the  margin  of  the  sole.  This  relieves  the 
loose  part  of  the  wall  of  weight  without  doing  any  harm. 
Convex  walls  should  be  judiciously  rasped  so  as  to  bring  them 
towards  their  normal  direction.  If  the  hoof  is  weak,  the 
bearing  surface  of  the  shoe  may  be  very  slightly  inclined 
inwards.  If,  however,  in  addition  to  loose  wall  other  disease 
of  the  hoof  exists,  a  bar  shoe  with  leather  sole  should  be 
applied ;  sometimes  quarter-clips  are  useful. 

When  lameness  is  present,  the  separated  section  of  the  wall 
should  be  relieved  of  weight,  but  this  is  not  always  possible 
when  the  separation  is  of  large  extent. 

To  prevent  drying  and  the  entrance  of  dirt  the  space  may 
be  filled  with  tar,  or,  better  still,  with  Venice  turpentine  and 
tow,  failing  which,  wax  can  be  used.  Horn  substitutes  like 
gutta-percha  become  hard,  and  are  apt  to  act  as  a  wedge, 
increasing  the  size  of  the  space ;  they  should,  therefore,  be 
avoided. 

If  pain  is  excessive  and  suppuration  feared,  the  suspected 
area  can  be  opened  at  its  lowest  point  with  a  small  centre-bit, 
and  any  blood-stained  or  purulent  fluid  removed,  when  the 
pain  will  diminish.  After-treatment  is  similar  to  that  given 
on   page   320. 

In  unshod  horses  loose  wall  is  treated  by  removing  all  the 
separated  horn  and,  if  necessary,  by  applying  a  shoe. 

(h)  Seedy  toe  is  a  condition  in  which  the  laminal  and 
tubular  sheaths  of  the  horn  wall  are  divided  in  the  direction 
of  their  respective  surfaces.  Compared  with  that  previously 
described,   this   condition   is   rare. 


TREATMENT   OF   LOOSE    WALL   AND   SEEDY   TOE.  375 

The  presence  of  seedy  toe  may  be  suspected  when  a  portion 
of  the  wall  appears  either  prominent  or  hollow,  and  gives  forth 
a  hollow  sound  on  being  struck.  To  confirm  the  diagnosis  the 
shoe  must  be  removed.  The  white  line  is  then  seen  to  be 
replaced  by  a  narrow  slit,  which,  however,  in  no  way  indicates 
the  extent  of  the  disease.  The  division  between  the  two  por- 
tions of  the  wall  extends  further  upwards  than  in  loose  wall, 
in  many  cases  as  far  as  the  coronet.  The  space  is  usually 
filled  with  degenerated  horn.  The  width  of  the  diseased  part 
may  at  times  be  very  considerable.  Moller  states  that  it 
varies  from  -|-  inch  to  4  inches. 

Seedy  toe  is  generally  painless,  but  lameness  is  caused  when 
weight  is  thrown  on  the  diseased  portion  of  wall  and  when  the 
•animal  is  worked  at  a  fast  pace. 

The  cause  is  stated  by  Moller  to  be  an  interruption  in  the 
formation  of  horn.  In  fact,  there  is  considerable  diversity  of 
opinion  on  this  point,  but  tentatively  seedy  toe  may  be  con- 
sidered as  possibly  due  to  the  action  of  some  fungus-like 
organism  which  obtains  entrance  to  the  inner  sheath  of  the 
wall  and  induces  change  in  the  horn.  A  cure  requires  con- 
siderable time. 

In  sJioeing,  the  diseased  portion  of  wall  should  always  be 
relieved  of  weight.  The  cavity  should  be  cleared  out  and, 
after  dressing  with  pure  carbolic  acid,  filled  with  tow  and  tar, 
turpentine,  or  wax.  "When  the  disease  is  more  extensive  a 
bar  shoe  should  be  applied  and  the  nails  omitted  at  the 
diseased  spot. 

The  radical  method  of  dealing  with  seedy  toe  is  to  remove 
all  separated  and  disintegrated  horn,  thoroughly  disinfect  the 
parts  with  pure  carbolic  acid,  apply  a  bar  shoe  and  blister  the 
coronet.     This,  of  course,  necessitates  a  long  rest. 

4.    TlIKUSH 

is  characterised  by  the  presence  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog  of  an 
ill-smelling,  blackish  fluid,  and  by  the  frog  itself  being  ragged 
or  atrophied.  The  disease  usually  begins  in  the  central  furrow 
of  the  frog  and  extends  thence  to  the  other  portions,  which  it 
destroys  partly  or  even  entirely.  The  products  of  decomposi- 
tion irritate  the  sensitive  parts  and  cause  tenderness  if    not 


376       .  SOLUTIONS  OF  CONTINUITY  IN  THE  HOEN. 

actual  lameness.  The  central  portion  of  the  frog  first  dis- 
appears ;  and  as  a  result  of  the  unopposed  pressure  of  the  wall 
the  limbs  next  approach  and  fill  up  the  previously  existing 
cleft,  a  condition  which  renders  it  difficult  to  keep  the  space 
clean.  At  the  same  time,  the  discharge  gradually  attacks  the 
horny  bulbs  and  may  lead  to  a  similar  process  in  the  periople. 
This  is  followed  by  the  formation  of  rings  in  the  superficial 
horny  sheath  of  the  wall.  The  rings  can  be  distinguished 
from  those  of  the  deeper  sheath  both  by  their  appearance 
and  course.  They  usually  consist  of  slight  elevations,  which 
approach  in  front  and  towards  the  upper  part  of  the  foot, 
where  they  may  end  or  again  may  take  an  irregular  course 
backwards,  extending  as  far  as  the  opposite  half  of  the 
wall.  They  always  cross  the  rings  of  the  deeper  sheath ; 
indeed,  when  thrush  has  existed  for  a  long  time,  they  some- 
times cross  one  another.  This  peculiar  ring  formation,  which 
is  almost  pathognomonic  of  thrush,  .shows  that  the  disease  has 
existed  for  at  least  several  months. 

Thrush  results  chiefly  from  want  of  cleanliness,  insufficient 
exercise,  and  faulty  shoeing.  If  for  a  long  time  the  frog  is 
prevented  touching  the  ground  by  excessive  trimming,  or  by  the 
use  of  unsuitable  shoes,  it  either  atrophies  or  thrush  develops. 
Prolonged  rest,  however,  without  any  fault  in  shoeing,  may 
produce  the  disease.  It  has  been  suggested  that  thrush  is  due 
to  inflammation  of  the  sudoriparous  glands  of  the  frog. 

Prognosis. — The  views  held  as  to  the  significance  of  thrush 
are  unusually  varied.  Some  regard  it  as  a  very  trifling 
disease,  which  may  continue  for  years  without  any  particular 
ill  consequence,  or  even  as  a  benign  condition  not  to  be  inter- 
fered with. 

If  thrush  in  itself  is  not  of  much  importance,  it  often  leads, 
however,  to  much  more  serious  conditions.  It  weakens  the 
framework  of  the  hoof,  and  in  flat  feet  favours  the  advent  of 
contraction.  It  may  interfere  with  the  animal's  use,  and  even 
when  not  actually  producing  lameness,  it  causes  the  stride  ta 
be  shortened  and  diminishes  freedom  of  movement.  When 
affecting  one  side  of  the  frog,  it  is  apt  to  lead  to  unilateral 
contraction  and  obliquity  of  the  hoo.f.  In  addition,  it  has 
been  held  responsible  for  the  production  of  corns,  sandcracks, 
and  even  canker. 


THRUSH.  377 

The  treatment  of  thrush  is  neither  complicated  nor  difficult, 
provided  neglect  has  not  resulted  in  serious  changes  in  the 
lioof.  When  the  attack  is  recent  and  there  is  no  marked 
change  in  form,  cure  will  be  obtained  by  allowing  the  diseased 
frog  to  come  in  contact  with  the  ground  and  exercising  the 
animal  freely.  In  more  serious  cases  removal  of  all  loose 
fragments  of  horn,  thorough  washing  of  the  diseased  frog 
several  times  daily,  and  the  application  of  some  antiseptic  or 
mild  astringent,  such  as  raw  pyroligneous  acid  or  a  5  per  cent, 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  will  usually  prove  sufficient. 

To  prevent  irritation  by  manure,  etc.,  the  frog  should  be 
cleansed  and  smeared  with  Venice  turpentine,  after  which  a 
moderately  warm  iron  may  be  slowly  passed  over  the  parts- 
without  actually  burning  them ;  if,  however,  the  disease  is  of 
old  standing,  the  frog  almost  denuded  of  horn,  and  the  hoof  so- 
contracted  that  the  walls  of  the  heel  press  on  the  plantar 
cushion  and  frog,  De  Fay's  shoe  (page  350)  may  be  employed 
with  great  advantage.  Contraction  at  the  heels  favours  the 
disease,  and  conversely  its  removal  assists  recovery.  As  soon 
as  possible  the  frog  should  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  ground.  Needless  to  say,  the  dilating  shoe  is  useless- 
except  when  the  hoof  is  contracted.  By  using  the  knife  in 
conjunction  with  astringent  powders,  thrush  can  be  cured,  i.e., 
the  offensive  discharge  can  be  stopped  ;  but,  as  compared  with 
the  sound,  well-developed  organ  which  results  from  proper 
shoeing,  the  small,  dry,  shrivelled  frog  thus  produced  is  most 
unsatisfactory.  Thrush  can  only  be  regarded  as  cured  when 
the  discharge  has  ceased  and  the  frog  is  once  more  dry  and 
well  developed.  This  is  not  to  be  obtained  by  the  application 
of  chemicals  ;  regular  exercise  and  the  intermittent  pressure 
it  causes  can  alone  produce  sound  horn.  Canker  can  only  be 
efficiently  treated  by  the  veterinary  surgeon,  and  the  work  of 
the  farrier  in  such  cases  is  confined  to  fashionim^  the  neces- 
sary  shoe. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  STEUCTURES  ENCLOSED 

BY  THE  HOOF. 

1.  Pricks  m  Shoeing 

liESULT  from  misdirection  of  the  nail  in  driving,  in  consequence 
either  of  the  driver's  carelessness,  or  (and  much  more  fre- 
quently) of  badly-punched  nail-holes.  They  may  be  divided 
into  two  kinds,  direct  and  indirect. 

The  effects  of  the  first  are  immediately  perceptible,  those  of 
the  second  may  be  delayed. 

In  cases  of  direct  injury  the  nail  penetrates  the  sensitive 
sole  or  wall,  and  the  lesion  may  vary  from  simple  perforation 
to  fracture  of  the  edge  of  the  os  pedis.  There  is  always  bleed- 
ing, though  the  blood  may  not  be  seen. 

In  the  second  case  the  nail  does  not  penetrate  vascular 
tissues,  but  passes  close  to  them,  thrusting  the  soft  horn 
inwards,  pressing  on  sensitive  structures,  and  in  the  course  of  a 
few  days  producing  inllammation  and  lameness.  There  is  no 
bleeding.      This  condition  is  often  termed  '  binding.' 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptom  of  direct  injury  is  pain, 
shown  by  the  limlj  being  pulled  away,  and  intimating  to  the 
farrier  that  the  nail  has  taken  a  wrong  course.  When  removed, 
more  or  less  blood  follows  the  nail  or  discolours  its  point,  but 
bleeding  may  occur  inwardly  without  being  visible.  It  is 
otherwise  when  the  foot  at  some  part  is  bound  or  indirectly 
injured.  Pain  is  not  then  immediately  evinced,  or  at  least  not 
until  the  animal  places  weight  on  the  foot.  If  attempts  are 
made  to  raise  the  opposite  foot  the  horse  leans  in  that  direction 
and  appears  uneasy.  The  effects  of  indirect  pricks  usually 
become  apparent  in  from  two  to  three  days,  but  may  be  post- 
poned for  eight  to  fourteen  days,  when  inflammation  and  lame- 


DETECTION  OF   PRICKS   FROM   SHOEIXG.  379 

iiess  draw  attention  to  the  foot.  The  hoof  is  then  hot,  painful 
to  percussion  and  to  pressure  with  the  pincers  ;  there  is  slight 
swelling,  increased  pulsation  of  the  digital  arteries,  and  partial 
or  complete  inability  to  bear  weight  on  the  foot. 

Pricks  in  shoeing  may  be  suspected  when  the  animal  is 
tender  on  the  foot,  when  it  has  been  newly  shod,  when  the 
hoof  appears  too  small  for  the  size  of  the  body,  when  the  wall 
is  excessively  rasped  or  portions  are  broken  away,  and  when 
the  nails  are  very  high  or  very  unequally  placed. 

Premising  that  even  with  every  precaution  pricks  in  shoeing 
are  sometimes  unavoidable,  the  more  common  causes  may  be 
arranged  as  follows  : — (1)  badly  placed  or  misdirected  nail 
holes ;  (2)  excessive  paring  and  lowering  of  the  hoof :  (3)  thin- 
ning the  wall  by  rasping  the  outside ;  (4)  faults  in  fitting  the 
shoe ;  using  very  narrow  shoes  ;  sinking  the  toe-clip  too  far 
into  the  hoof  (the  nail  holes,  instead  of  corresponding  with  the 
w^hite  line,  then  fall  within  the  region  of  the  sole) ;  (5)  faulty 
driving ;  the  use  of  badly  pointed  or  excessively  large  nails  ; 
(6)  placing  the  nail  too  deep,  or  reversal  of  its  point.  As 
accidental  causes  may  be  mentioned,  (7)  old  stubs  left  in  the 
hoofs ;  (8)  very  thin  or  broken  walls ;  (9)  abnormal  softness 
of  the  horn,  which  renders  it  difficult  to  ascertain  the  course 
of  the  nail  by  the  resistance  and  sound  :  (10)  restlessness  of 
the  animal  while  the  nails  are  being  driven ;  and  (11)  (nowadays 
a  very  uncommon  event)  splitting  of  the  nail  in  the  hoof. 

To  detect  pain  in  the  foot  the  pincers  are  applied  with 
moderate  and  regular  pressure  all  round  the  sole  and  the 
clenches,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  wall  is  gently  tapped  with 
the  hammer.  If  the  horse  flinches  at  a  certain  spot,  the  shoe 
must  be  removed,  each  nail  being  drawn  separately.  Xote 
should  be  taken  of  the  direction  and  thickness  of  the  nails  and 
of  any  adherent  blood,  blood- serum,  or  pus.  The  point  where 
each  nail  enters  the  hoof  should  be  examined.  If,  instead 
of  passing  through  the  white  line,  one  of  the  nail  holes  appears 
within  it,  i.e.,  nearer  the  centre  of  the  foot,  it  is  in  the  highest 
degree  probable  that  that  particular  nail  hole  is  at  fault. 
Each  hole  is  then  examined  by  passing  a  clean  nail  into  it  and 
pressing  the  point  towards  the  soft  tissues  at  different  depths. 
Under  such  conditions  symptoms  of  pain  are  a  sure  indication 
of  the  animal  having  been  pricked.     It  need  scarcely  be  said 


380      INFLAMMATION    OF   STEUCTUEES   ENCLOSED   BY   THE    HOOF. 

that  the  position  and  direction  of  the   nail  holes  in  the  shoe- 
must  be  carefully  examined. 

Treatment. — If  the  horse  flinch  while  a  particular  nail  is 
being  driven,  the  nail  should  at  once  be  removed,  the  hole- 
disinfected  with  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  oil  (5  per  cent.)  and 
closed  with  wax.  There  is  seldom  any  bad  result.  But  when 
bleeding  follows,  the  shoe  should  once  more  be  carefully  tried,, 
and  only  affixed  when  it  is  seen  to  fit  perfectly  and  the  nail 
holes  to  exactly  correspond  with  the  white  line ;  the  nails 
should  be  left  out  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  injury  and  the- 
latter  disinfected  and  closed  with  wax  or  tar.  After  severe 
stabs  or  pricks  a  more  or  less  well-marked  infiammation  of  the 
coriiim  is  to  be  expected,  though  it  may  be  prevented  by 
cutting  out  and  disinfecting  the  injured  part,  resting  the- 
animal,  and  using  cold  poultices.  When,  however,  the  wound 
is  clean  and  fresh  no  good  object  is  served  by  cutting  it  out. 

'  Binding '  (or  nail  pressure)  often  remains  undetected  until' 
pain  becomes  severe.  In  such  cases  the  offending  nail  when 
withdrawn  is  usually  covered  with,  or  followed  by,  pus,  or  a. 
dark  coloured,  sometimes  stinking  fluid.  To  allow  the  freest 
possible  exit  for  this  discharge  it  is  advisable  to  remove  all 
horn  which  has  become  '  underrun,'  i.e.,  which  is  separated  from 
the  sensitive  tissues.  The  particular  nail  hole  may  be  cut  out 
sufficiently  to  accommodate  the  little  finger,  the  surrounding 
parts  of  the  sole  well  thinned,  and  discharge  assisted  by 
warm  baths  or  poultices.  Excessive  paring  is  to  be  avoided. 
If  pain  continues  after  removing  the  nail  and  allowing  the  pus^ 
to  escape,  warm  baths  of  3  to  5  per  cent,  carbolic  solution  are 
very  useful.  The  moisture  and  warmth  soften  the  horn  and 
diminish  pain. 

If  after  two  or  three  warm  baths  the  pain  is  diminished  or 
not  very  severe,  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  oil  or  tincture  of  myrrh 
may  be  applied  to  the  injured  part  and  the  opening  closed 
with  a  little  carbolic  jute  or  wood  wool.  In  most  cases  com- 
plete recovery  will  soon  occur.  If  shod  so  as  to  prevent 
pressure  on  the  injured  spot,  horses  which  have  been  pricked 
can  often  be  returned  to  work  in  a  few  days.  The  shoe  must 
take  its  bearing  only  on  the  wall,  and  pressure  on  the  white 
line  and  margin  of  the  sole  must  be  avoided.  No  nails  should, 
be  driven  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  injury.      Although,  when 


PRICKS   IN   SHOEING    AND   PICKED-UP   NAILS. 


381 


■early  detected  and  appropriately  treated,  pricks  in  shoeing  are 
not  dangerous,  yet  in  some  cases  they  lead  to  extensive 
suppuration  and  loss  of  the  hoof,  or  become  infected,  determine 
the  onset  of  tetanus,  and  thus  prove  often  fatal. 

2.  PicKED-up  Nails. 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  nails  and  sharp  bodies 
accidentally  penetrate  the  hoof,  either  through  the  horny  sole  or 
■frog,  and,  driven   onwards  by  the  weight   of  the  animal's  body, 


Fig.  354.— Hind-foot  shod  with  surgical  shoe  for  retaining  dressings. 

Teach  the  sensitive  sole,  sensitive  frog,  plantar  cushion,  per- 
forans  tendon,  navicular  sheath,  pedal  bone  or  even  the  coffin 
joint. 

The  hind  feet  are  perhaps  more  frequently  affected  than  the 
fore.  The  commonest  points  of  perforation  are  the  lateral 
furrows  of  the  frog,  and,  when  weakened  by  excessive  trim- 
ming, the  sole  and  frog. 

The  symptoms  are  usually  sudden  pain  and  lameness.  The 
shoe  should  be  removed  and  a  thin  slice  taken  off  the  sole  and 
frog  when  the  point  of  entrance  of  the  foreign  body  (or  the 
body  itself),  whether  a  nail,  piece  of  glass,  or  other  pointed 


382 


INFLAMMATION  OF  STKUCTUEES  EXCLOSED  BY  THE  HOOF. 


object,  will  be  discovered,  and  should  be  cautiously  removed^ 
particular  care  being  taken  not  to  leave  any  fragment  behind. 
As  the  prognosis  largely  depends  on  how  deep  the  foreigiu 
body  has  penetrated,  the  latter  should  be  preserved,  so  that 
the  veterinary  surgeon  may  examine  it. 

In  sliglit  injuries  of  the  sensitive  sole  or  frog,  where  pain  i& 
only  moderate,  the  wound  should  not  be  enlarged,  and  it  is  only 
necessary  to  carefully  thin  the  adjacent  horny  parts.  In 
deeper  penetrating  injuries  and  when  pain  is  severe,  a  veterinary 
surgeon  should  be  called  in. 

Poultices  or  dressings  are  then  necessary,  and  the  special 
shoe  (fig.  354)  may  be  found  useful.     The  shoe  is  well  seated 


Fig.  355.— Shoe  for  surgical  dressing;  of  the 
foot,  a,  screw  holes ;  and  b,  depression 
on  upper  surface  for  fastening  the  cover 
shown  in  next  fig. 


Fig.  35C.  —  Cover  for  shoe  sliown  ii> 
previous  fig.  The  letters  indicate  simi- 
lar points. 


out  and  the  dressing  itself  held  in  position  by  flexible  pieces  of 
wood  thrust  between  the  shoe  and  the  horny  sole.  By  using 
two  crossed  '  splints '  of  thin  wood  or  hoop  iron,  a  dressing  may 
be  retained  in  an  ordinary  shoe,  the  special  form  then  being 
unnecessary. 

In  very  special  cases,  when  it  is  desired  to  exercise  pressure 
on  the  injured  spot  and  when  the  entire  ground  surface  of  the 
hoof  must  be  protected,  the  shoes  shown  in  figs.  355  to  362 
may  be  used ;  the  sole  is  protected  by  an  iron  plate  affixed  by 
means  of  a  point  at  the  toe  and  a  screw  at  either  heel. 


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SURGICAL  SHOES.  dSS 


STAMPED    CAKT    FOEE    SHOE    (SUEGICAL),    WITH 
ARRANGEMENT  FOR  DRESSING  FOOT  (Fig.  357). 

Made  from  l^x  ^  inch  iron. 

This  shoe,  specially  made  for  treating  cases  of  canker,  etc., 
is  seated  out  to  the  heels  to  allow  of  an  iron  plate  (sec  following 
figures)  being  inserted  between  it  and  the  foot.  The  modu& 
operandi  is  to  dress  the  foot,  insert  a  proper  stopping  of  tow, 
wood-wool,  etc.,  and  insert  the  plate,  which  serves  the  double- 
purpose  of  retaining  the  dressing  and  excluding  moisture. 

As  it  is  usually  needful  to  dress  the  foot  daily,  this  shoe 
obviates  the  necessity  for  removal  and  is  of  important  service. 


STAMPED    CAET    HIND    SHOE    (SUEGICAL),    WITH 
ARRANGEMENT  FOR  DRESSING  FOOT  (Fig.  358). 

Made  from  1-|-  X  -J-  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  corresponds  in  purpose  with  the  preceding.  It 
must  be  well  seated  out  to  the  extreme  limits  of  heels  to  allow 
the  plate  to  be  introduced.  In  most  cases  it  is  advantageous- 
to  have,  as  here  depicted,  a  toe  and  two  quarter  clips.  They 
give  greater  support  to  the  shoe  and  prevent  it  shifting. 


384      INFLAMMATION   OF   STKUCTUKES   ENCLOSED   BY   THE   HOOF. 


PLATES  FOE  SUEGICAL  SHOES  (Fig.  359). 
Made  from  16  gauge  sheet  iron. 

This  plate  closes  the  under  surface  of  the  foot,  retaining  the 
dressing,  preventing  the  entrance  of  moisture  or  dirt,  and  pro- 
tecting the  parts  from  injury.  The  sheet  iron  used  must  he 
iairly  stout,  otherwise  the  plate  bends  and  rapidly  wears  out. 

Before  the  shoe  is  nailed  on  the  foot  it  is  used  as  a  ouide 
for  marking  out  the  plate,  which  is  made  to  slip  in  and  out 
with  a  certain  amount  of  friction.  When  the  shoe  is  nailed 
on,  the  plate  is  inserted  and  the  length  of  heel  marked.  Lastly, 
the  heel  portion  is  turned  over  in  the  vice  and  the  holes  for 
straps  are  punched. 


STAMPED    CART    HIND    SHOE    (SUEGICAL),    WITH 
AEEANGEMENT  FOE  DEESSING  FOOT  (Fig.  360). 

Made  from  1-J  X  -I-  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  used  for  a  similar  purpose  to  those  preceding. 
The  plate  is  attached  by  three  screws,  one  at  the  toe  and  one 
at  each  heel. 

Being  more  complicated,  the  shoe  is,  in  general,  less  useful 
than  that  with  sliding  plate. 


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Fig.  361.— Stamped  cart  hind  shoe  (surgical),  with  arrangement  for  dressing 

foot.     ]\[ade  from  H  x  ^  inch  iron. 


To  face  p.  385.] 


To  face  p.  385.] 


Fig.  362. 


SURGICAL   SHOES.  385 


STAMPED  CART  HIND  SHOE  (SURGICAL),  WITH 
ARRANGEMENT  FOR  DRESSING  FOOT  (Figs. 
361,  362). 

Made  from  ^\x-^  i'^^ch  iron. 

This  shoe  has  a  plate  attached  at  the  heels  by  a  hinge,  and 
at  the  toe  by  a  screw.  As  shown  in  the  following  illustration 
the  plate  folds  back,  giving  free  access  to  the  sole  for  the  pur- 
pose of  inserting  dressings.  The  shoe  is  complicated  and  can 
only  be  made  by  a  good  workman,  but  in  cases  where  a  great 
deal  of  pressure  on  the  sole  is  required  it  is  of  real  value. 
Otherwise  it  can  advantageously  be  replaced  by  the  shoe  with 
sliding  plate. 


2b 


386   INFLAMMATION  OF  STRUCTURES  ENCLOSED  BY  THE  HOOF. 

3.  TkEADS  ON  THE  CORONET 

are  often  produced,  in  horses  with  itchy  legs,  by  the  animal 
rubbing  the  coronet  with  the  heel  of  the  opposite  shoe.  At 
intervals  the  horse  stamps  violently,  and  it  is  then  that  the 
injury  is  done.  The  front  and  inner  side  of  the  coronet  of 
hind-feet  are  most  frequently  injured.  A  '  tread '  is  a  bruise 
or  contused  wound,  associated  with  inflammation  of  the  coronary 
band,  which  often  results  in  destruction  of  a  portion  of  the 
horn-secreting  structures  and  permanent  injury  to  the  hoof. 
Such  accidents  are  commonest  in  winter  when  animals  are 
shod  with  sharp  heels. 

The  inflammation  results  either  in  resolution  or  in  necrosis 
with  suppuration.  The  periople  when  separated  does  not  again 
become  adherent,  •  and  in  consequence  of  this  and  of  the 
interrupted  formation  of  horn  a  cavity  results  in  the  horn  wall 
(see  page  372).  When  lameness  follows  treads,  the  portion  of 
the  wall  below  the  injury  must  be  relieved  of  weight.  In  fresh 
cases  the  injured  parts  should  be  carefully  cleansed  with  warm 
water,  all  dirt,  hairs,  and  loose  portions  of  tissue  removed,  and 
some  antiseptic  (5  per  cent,  carbolic  lotion)  or  mild  astringent, 
like  5  per  cent,  alum  or  acetate  of  lead  solution,  applied. 
Severe    treads   always  require   the   attention   of  a   veterinary 


surgeon. 


4.  Inflammation  of  the  Perioplic  King. 

The  periopUc  ring  becomes  inflamed  comparatively  seldom. 
The  inflammation  may  affect  the  entire  ring  or,  as  when  it 
results  from  dirt  and  irritants,  only  the  portions  above  the 
toe  wall. 

The  S7/mptoms  are  increased  warmth,  swelling,  tenderness 
on  pressure,  in  white  feet  well-marked  redness  of  the  skin, 
and  (later)  a  change  in  the  condition  of  the  perioplic  ring  and 
superficial  sheath  of  the  hoof.  This  superficial  sheath  exhibits 
elevations  and  depressions,  running  parallel  with  the  coronet, 
and  thus  forming  more  or  less  complete  rings,  or  the  perioplic 
ring  becomes  irregularly  thickened.  The  perioplic  horn  after- 
wards cracks  longitudinally  and  transversely,  giving  the  affected 
part  of  the  hoof  an  appearance  resembling  the  bark  of  an  elm 


INJUKIES   TO   INFLAMMATION   OF   CORONET.  387 

tree  (fig.  363).  Above  the  perioplic  ring  the  epidermis  usually 
shows  an  abundant  growth  of  bran-like  scales  and  crusts  (as  in 
dry  eczema).  In  many  cases  the  perioplic  ring  appears  denuded 
of  horn  and  so  swollen  as  to  project  considerably  above  the 
upper  margin  of  the  wall.  The  disease  takes  a  chronic  course. 
The  causes  are  only  partially  understood.  The  perioplic 
ring,  especially  in  pigmented  hoofs,  appears  covered  with  dry, 
rough,  brittle  scales.     Where  fragments  have  broken  away  the 


FiQ.  363. — Showing  appearance  of  hoof  after  long-coutinued  inflammation  of 

the  perioplic  ring. 

reddened  and  inflamed  perioplic  ring  becomes  visible.  Treads 
on  the  coronet  or  the  use  of  irritants  (frequent  poulticing, 
grease,  etc.,  etc.)  may  give  rise  to  this  condition.  Gutenacker 
describes  cases  caused  by  the  use  of  unrefined  vaseline. 

Treatment  consists  principally  in  removing  the  cause.  The 
parts  are  thoroughly  cleansed  with  water  and  (carbolic)  soap 
and  any  proliferations  or  thickenings  removed.  Gentle  infric- 
tion  with  boric  acid  ointment  or  3  per  cent,  carbolic  ointment 
has  been  followed  by  good  results.  Some  recommend  sulphur 
ointment,  consisting  of  sulphur  2  parts,  lard  or  lanoline  5  parts, 
or  a  lotion  of  2  parts  tartaric  acid  in  100  parts  glycerine,  with 
the  addition  of  3  to  5  parts  creolin.  *  When  deep  cracks  form 
and  discharge,  a  pressure  bandage  combined  with  astringents 
is  often  useful. 

5.  Corns. 

In  the  widest  acceptance  of  the  word  a  corn  may  be  defined 
as  a  bruise  sustained  by  the  keratogenous  membrane.  Corns 
are  recognised  by  the  yellowish-red  or  purple  colour  of   the 


888      INFLAMMATION   OF   STRUCTURES   ENCLOSED   BY   THE   HOOF. 

horn   of   the  white  line   and  sole.     Their  commonest  seat   is 
between  wall  and  bar. 

A  light  bruise  causes  exudation  at  the  surface  of  the  corium, 
forming  the  sensitive  laminae  and  papillae.  After  more  severe 
bruises  blood-vessels  are  ruptured,  blood  poured  out  between 
the  corium  and  growing  horn,  is  absorbed  by  the  latter  and 
gives  rise  to  the  above  described  discoloration.  The  coloured 
portions  are  carried  downward  by  the  continued  growth  of 
horn,  until  finally  they  reach  the  ground  surface.  It  is,  there- 
fore, clear  that  a  corn  is  never  visible  at  the  time  of  its  pro- 


Fig.  364.— Cross  section  of  the  horny  and  sensitive  walls  from  a  case  of  contracted  heel. 
Magnified  26  diameters,  a,  horny  wall ;  b,  horny  laminae  ;  b',  their  foldings  ;  c,  showing 
change  in  direction  of  secondary  laminai ;  d,  sensitive  wall. 


duction,  and  cannot  be  detected  until  the  hoof  has  been  '  cut 
out.'  Corns  may  be  situate  in  the  sensitive  wall  of  the  heel, 
the  sensitive  sole  coverino-  the  corner  of  the  heel  and  the 
sensitive  bar,  for  which  reason,  wall,  sole,  and  bar  corns  have 
been  differentiated.  They  are  rare  in  unshod  horses.  The 
front  feet,  and  especially  the  inner  heels,  are  their  commonest 


MICROSCOPICAL   CHANGES  AFTEK   '  CORN.' 


389 


seats.     According  to  their  severity  and  seqneke  corns  may  be 
divided  into  several  varieties. 

(1)  Slight  bruises  lead  to  distortion  of  the  horny  lamina^ 
and  secondary  laminae  (fig.  364,  tl  and  c)  and  to  superficial  in- 
flammation of  the  corium  with  exudation  of  sero-sanguineous 
fluid,  which  causes  a  yellowish,  waxy  or  yellowish-red  colora- 
tion. Extravasation  of  blood  produces  a  red  or  bluish-red 
colour.  The  fluid  exuded  is  again  absorbed,  leaving  the  spot 
dry,  hence  the  name  *  dry  corn.'  Lameness  is  seldom  associ- 
ated with  this  form. 

(2)  Severe  bruising  and  the  entrance  of  pyogenic  organisms, 
lead  to  inflammation  and  suppuration,  the  condition  termed 
'  suppurating  corn.'  Failing  artificial  paths  of  escape  through 
the  horn,  the  abscess  enlarges  in  the  direction  of  least  resist- 
ance, i.e.,  upward  between  the    sensitive    and    horny  laminse 


Fig.  365.— Transverse  section  of  horny  and  sensitive  wall  from  case  of  corn  of  the  wall. 
X  24.     a,  horn  wall ;  b,  horny  laminae ;   c  and  d,  degenerated  horn ;   e,  sensitive  wall ; 
/,  space  produced  by  formation  of  pus;  g,  shrivelled  sensitive  lamina;;   h,  distorted 
horny  laminae. 


(fig.  365,  f),  and  finally  breaks  through  at  the  coronet.  In 
corns  of  the  sole  the  sensitive  and  horny  soles  are  separated 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  in  corns  of  the  bar  suppura- 
tion may  even  extend  to  tlie  plantar  cushion.  Suppurating 
corns  often  produce  great  pain  and  lameness. 

(3)  When  mechanical  irritation  is  continually  renewed,  the 
corn  becomes  permanent.  Organic  changes  occur  in  the 
corium  and  hoof  and  sometimes  in  the  pedal  bone  itself.     The 


390      INFLAMMATION   OF  STRUCTUEES   ENCLOSED   BY   THE    HOOF. 


horn    is    greatly  discoloured,    permeated    with    cracks,  blood- 
stained, and  of  soft  consistence. 

Long  continued  irritation  of  the  sensitive  wall  produces 
change  in  the  horn  of  the  quarters  and  heels.  The  sensitive 
wall  often  loses  its  laminated  character  .at  the  centre  of 
suppuration  and  exhibits  a  deep  groove  devoid  of  laminae, 
though  without  sacrificing  its  power  of  producing  horn. 
Though  no    horny  laminae  are    produced,  the    space  becomes 


-w^,' 


m 


Fig.  366.— Portion  of  the  inner  surface  of 
the  wall  showing  changes  after  old 
standing  corn,    a,  horn  tumour. 


111-  !?',■.••■:■. 'A"  ■'■)  w 


Fig.  367. —  Ground  surface  of  pedal  bone 
showing  bony  enlargements  on  the  wings 
(retrossal  processes)  in  consequence  of  old 
standing  corn. 


filled  with  horn,  which  forms  firm  masses  or  tumours  of  vary- 
ing size  (fig.  365,  c,  and  366,  a).  The  wings  of  the  os  pedis 
become  enlarged,  in  consequence  of  chronic  inflammation, 
ostitis  or  periostitis  (fig.  367),  as  sometimes  discovered  after 
death. 

The  symptoms  of  corn  are  those  of  inflammation  of  the 
corium.  In  horses  visibly  lame  there  is  always  pain  and  in- 
creased warmth.  The  reddened  spot  in  the  heel  is  found  on 
cutting  out  the  foot.  Corns  may  be  due  to  very  varied  causes, 
and  are  by  no  means  consequent  on  bad  shoeing  alone.  Such 
causes  are  often  to  be  found  in  the  formation  of  the  hoof 
itself  or  even  in  the  conformation  of  the  limb.  Hence  certain 
animals  suffer  more  frequently  than  others,  in  spite  of  the 
best  attention  in  shoeing,  while,  in  consequence  of  the  greater 
load  thrown  on  them,  the  fore  are  much  more  liable  to  corns 
than  the  hind  feet. 

Unequal  distribution  of  weight  in  feet  which  are  turned  in 
or  out    largely  influences  the  position  of  the  corn,  which  is 


SYMPTOMS   AND   CAUSES   OF   COKN.  391 

most  frequently  found  in  the  inner  heel  when  the  toe  is 
turned  outwards  and  vice  versa.  Weak,  low,  badly  formed  or 
contracted  heels  are  all  potent  causes.  Corns  are  also  very 
common  as  a  disease  secondary  to  side  bone.  '  Dropped  '  soles 
often  exhibit  corns,  the  heels  of  the  shoe  being  liable  to  press 
on,  or  even  become  embedded  in,  the  sole  at  the  point  of  the 
heel. 

The  external  caioses  are  many.  First  come  faulty  prepara- 
tion of  the  hoof,  bad  shoeing,  and  reckless  paring  of  broad 
flat  hoofs ;  then  follow  weakening  of  the  heels,  sole,  bars,  and 
frog  in  all  other  forms  of  hoof,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
toe  is  left  too  long ;  unequal  paring  of  one  side  of  the  hoof 
destroying  the  level  character  of  the  tread  ;  excessive  trimming 
of  the  sole  and  bars  in  order  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  strong 
hoof,  and  cutting  away  the  bars.  Amongst  faulty  shoes  may 
be  mentioned  those  which  are  either  too  short,  too  far  set 
under  the  hoof  or  nailed  on  across  it,  and  shoes  which  incom- 
pletely cover  the  bearing  surface  or  in  which  the  bearing 
surface  itself  inclines  inwards  at  the  heels.  These  confine  the 
expansion  of  the  hoof.  In  flat  and  dropped  soles  insufficient 
seating  out  of  the  shoe  is  also  a  cause.  Irregular  and  insecure 
fitting  and  shifting  of  the  shoe  from  carelessness  in  nailing  on 
may  also  cause  strain  of  laminae  in  the  heel.  Bad  shoeing 
usually  produces  corns  of  the  sole.  In  certain  circumstances 
stones,  becoming  fixed  between  the  frog  and  the  heel  of  the 
shoe,  bruise  the  sole. 

Inasmuch  as  dryness  is  injurious  to  the  hoof  it  may  also 
produce  corns.  It  renders  the  horny  box  hard  and  unyielding 
and  produces  a  '  shuffling '  gait  at  the  commencement  of  work. 
After  long  continuance  of  wet  weather  the  sole  may  become 
softened  and  so  rather  more  liable  to  bruising,  yet  this  is  only 
of  importance  when  other  causes  are  also  acting. 

The  very  real  character  of  the  complaints  as  to  hard  roads, 
fast  pace,  etc.,  causing  corns  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  in  spite 
of  good  shoeing,  horses  which  work  in  towns  suffer  much  more 
frequently  than  even  badly  shod  farm  horses. 

As  shoes  cause  the  entire  body-weight  to  rest  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  wall  while  the  sole  and  frog  are  more  or  less 
suspended  (especially  when  calkins  are  used),  it  is  not  difficult 
to  believe  that  in  the  suspciuling  parts,  ^.c.,  the  sensitive  lamiuse, 


392      INFLAMMATION   OF   STRUCTUKES   ENCLOSED   BY   THE   HOOF. 

strain  is  common.     In  this  respect,  as  in  many  others,  shoeing 
is  a  necessary  evil. 

The  prognosis  is  influenced  by  the  conformation  of  the  limbs 
and  condition  of  the  lateral  cartilages,  etc.  Turning  out  or  in 
of  the  toe,  weakness  of  the  quarters,  and  (especially)  ossification 
of  the  lateral  cartilage  are  all  unfavourable  factors. 

The  general  treatment  of  corns,  from  whatever  cause  arising, 
is  tolerably  constant,  save  when  side  bones  are  present,  in 
which  case  bar  shoes  are  objected  to  by  some.  The  consequences 
depend  not  on  the  colour  of  the  horn,  etc.,  but  on  the  position 
of  the  injury,  on  the  degree  of  pain  associated  with  it,  and 
on  the  cause.  As  in  other  diseased  conditions,  removal  of 
the  cause  plays  an  important  part  in  treatment.  Trifling 
bruises  producing  little  pain  and  accompanied  by  slight  extra- 
vasation of  blood  soon  become  converted  into  dry  corns.  Over- 
grown toes  should  be  shortened,  excessively  high  heels  lowered, 
and  a  shoe  applied  which  interferes  as  little  as  possible  with 
the  function  of  any  part  of  the  hoof.  Before  nailing  on  the 
shoe  the  posterior  part  of  the  bearing  surface  of  the  heel  is 
often  lowered  -|-  inch,  so  as  to  prevent  pressure  and  pain,  but 
the  use  of  a  shoe  '  set '  at  the  heel  is  preferable. 

When  pain  is  so  marked  as  to  indicate  extensive  injury  and 
severe  extravasation  of  blood,  the  shoe  should  be  removed,  the 
horn  thinned,  the  foot  placed  in  warm  boracic  acid  or  per- 
manganate of  potash  lotion  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  poultices 
then  applied,  to  diminish  the  inflammation,  and,  if  possible, 
prevent  suppuration.  If,  in  spite  of  this,  pain  increases, 
suppuration  has  generally  set  in. 

By  careful  examination  the  pus  is  found,  and  should  be 
allowed  free  exit.  The  most  direct  way  is  the  best,  proAdded 
it  necessitates  no  injury  of  healthy  soft  tissues  or  the  removal 
of  excessive  quantities  of  horn.  The  first  object  must,  how- 
ever, be  to  provide  free  drainage ;  even  when  pus  has  reached 
the  coronet,  an  opening  should  be  provided  below. 

A  warm  foot-bath  often  facilitates  the  discharge,  especially 
when  the  pus  is  thick  or  inspissated.  Once  pain  is  removed, 
the  horse  can  be  shod.  The  shoe  must  protect  the  diseased 
parts  from  external  bruises  and  internal  strain ;  a  well- 
constructed  bar  shoe  is  usually  best.  This  transfers,  without 
damage,  the  weight  of  the  body  from  the  diseased  to  the  sound 


TKEATMENT   OF   COKN. 


393 


parts.  The  depression  iu  the  horn  is  closed  with  a  pledget  of 
tow  saturated  with  carbolic  oil  or  tincture  of  myrrh,  and 
retained  in  position,  if  necessary,  by  a  leather  sole. 

In  old  corns  it  is  not  sufficient  to  temporarily  protect  the 
diseased  spot,  but  the  same  precautions  must  be  observed 
continually  or  for  a  long  time.  A  three-quarter  bar  shoe  is 
very  useful,  a  portion  being  cut  out  at  the  diseased  spot,  so  that 
it  experiences  no  pressure  whatever.     The  illustration  (fig.  368) 


Fig.  368. — Three-quarter  bar  shoe,    a,  seat 
of  the  corn. 


Fig.  369. ^Ordinary  three-quarter  shoe. 


sufficiently  shows  the  construction  of  this  shoe.  In  light 
horses  with  good  frogs  the  ordinary  three-quarter  shoe,  that  is, 
a  flat  shoe  minus  the  inner  quarter,  suits  very  well  (fig.  369). 

In  corns  associated  with  side  bone,  flat  shoes  with  a  thick 
leather  sole  are  applied,  and  the  hoof  is  kept  moist. 

If,  in  cases  of  old-standing  corn,  ojie  or  other  of  the  bulbs 
becomes  backwardly  displaced,  it  is  probable  that  the  os  pedis 
is  diseased,  as  shown  in  fig.  368.  The  shoe,  whether  a  bar  or 
ordinary  shoe,  should  then  be  provided  with  longer  heels  in 
order  to  remove  weight  from  the  diseased  side  (compare 
page  322). 

Other  complications,  like  sinus,  etc.,  consequent  on  the 
further  development  or  neglect  of  corns,  require  the  attention 
of  a  veterinary  surgeon. 


394      INFLAMMATION  OF   STRUCTURES   ENCLOSED   BY   THE   HOOF. 

Before  affixing  a  shoe  to  a  hoof  showing  corns,  especially 
when  the  horse  is  '  going  tender/  the  reddened  portion  of  the 
sole  should  be  thinned.  The  surrounding  parts  should  then  be 
moderately  thinned,  so  that  they  may  exercise  no  pressure  on 
the  diseased  area.  The  sensitive  parts  must  not,  of  course,  be 
exposed. 

Eeddish  spots  caused  by  bruising  sometimes  appear  at  other 
parts  of  the  sole  (bruised  sole).  The  cause  is  either  pressure 
on  the  sensitive  parts  by  the  horny  sole,  which  has  become 
too  thick  and  hard,  or,  as  is  usual,  bruising  by  loose  stones. 
Such  bruises  may  also  end  in  suppuration.  The  treatment  is 
similar  to  that  of  corns. 

The  shoes  illustrated  and  described  on  next  page  will  be  found 
exceedingly  useful  in  many  cases  of  corn. 


Fig.  370. — Three-quarter  fullered  seated  fore  shoe.     Made  from 

I  X  h  inch  iron . 


Fig.  371.— Fullered  fore  shoe  ('  set '  on  ground  surface  of  inside  heel). 

]\rade  from  |  x  i  inch  iron. 


To  face  p.  395.] 


SHOES  FOR  CASES  OF  CORN.  395 


THEEE-QUARTEE  FULLEEED  SEATED  FOEE  SHOE 

(Fia  370). 

Made  from  1  X  ^  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  useful  in  cases  of  corn  in  the  inside  heel,  wiry 
inside  heel,  or  weak  and  low  heel.  In  the  latter  case  very- 
great  benefit  is  often  derived,  and  the  heel  speedily  becomes 
stronger.  Cases  of  '  capped  elbow  '  may  also  be  shod  with  this 
shoe. 

A  leather  sole  or  frog  pad  may  be  used  in  conjunction. 
The  inside  heel  is  either  cut  off  square,  as  shown,  or  round. 

The  inside  quarter  of  shoe  must  be  fitted  fairly  full,  other- 
wise the  corresponding  part  of  foot  is  liable  to  split  off, 
■especially  if  the  wall  be  thin. 


FULLEEED  FOEE  SHOE  '  SET '  OX  GEOUND  SUEFACE 
OFIXSIDEHEEL  (Fig.  371). 

Made  from  -g-  X  J   inch  iro7i. 

The  method  of  '  settino; '  the  inside  heel  of  shoe  in  cases  of 
<;orn  is  infinitely  preferable  to  that  of  so-called  '  easing '  the 
heel  by  cutting  away  the  wall.  It  gives  protection  to  the 
injured  parts  without  exposing  them  to  the  risk  of  pressure. 
Sometimes  the  '  set '  is  placed  on  the  foot  surface,  but  this  is 
less  advantageous  that  the  system  illustrated.  It  is  produced 
by  a  few  blows  of  the  turning  or  boss  hammer,  the  shoe  being 
held  on  the  edge  of  the  anvil. 

The  '  set '  part  should  be  fitted  long  and  full.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  it  be  reduced  to  half  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  other- 
wise as  the  shoe  wears  level  with  the  '  set '  portion  pressure 
will  again  be  produced  on  the  tender  spot.  If  the  horse  wears 
hard  on  the  inside  heel,  it  may  be  needful  to  reduce  the  thick- 
ness still  more. 


396    inflammation  of  stkuctures  enclosed  by  the  hoof. 

6.   Shoeing  after  Laminitir. 

Laminitis  is  a  peculiar  inflammation  of  the  horn-secreting 
structures,  usually  seen  to  follow  chill,  digestive  disorder,  or 
overwork  when  the  animal  is  in  unfit  condition.  It  suddenly 
affects  horses  and  frequently  leads  to  changes  in  the  form  of 
the  hoof,  as  shown  in  figs.  372  to  374.  Certain  facts  seem  to 
encourage  the  view  that  it  results  from  specific  infection. 

The  disease  is  always  accompanied  with  pain.  The  front 
feet  are  the  most  common  seat,  though  occasionally  all  four  feet 
or  only  one  foot  may  be  affected.  In  the  first  case  the  two 
front-feet  are  placed  in  advance  of  the  body  and  the  hind-feet 
thrust  far  under  it.  When  all  four  feet  are  inflamed,  the 
animal  can  scarcely  walk.  The  disease  often  attacks  very 
suddenly,  and  is  then  usually  accompanied  by  well-marked 
fever. 

The   sensitive   laminae   of   the    toe   show  the   most  marked 


Fig.  372.— Longitudinal  section  of  hoof  one 
year  after  severe  attack  of  laminitis. 


Fig.  373.— Longitudinal  section  of  hoof 
three  months  after  attack,  a,  patho- 
logically modified  horn  of  the  white  line ; 
b,  distortion  of  the  horn  tubules  in  con- 
se((uence  of  sinking  of  the  os  pedis. 


Fig.  374. — Hoof  after  laminitis. 


Fig.  375.— The  same  shod.    The  dotted  lines 
indicate  the  previous  form. 


changes,  those  of  the  quarters  and  heels  being  less  affected. 
Varying  with  the  degree  of  disease  the  connection  between  the 


ANATOMICAL  CHANGES   AFTER   LAMINITIS. 


397 


sensitive  and  horny  lamina3  is  more  or  less  obliterated,  the  os 
pedis  sinks,  and  at  the  same  time  a  depression  occurs  round  the 
coronet  (figs.  372  to  375). 

The  form  of  the  hoof,  therefore,  alters  and  the  heels  appear 
higher.  Eings  form  on  the  wall,  the  course  of  which  is  quite 
characteristic.  At  the  toe  they  lie  close  together,  gradually  di- 
verging from  this  point  towards  the  heels  (fig.  374).  Below  the 
coronet  the  toe  wall  generally  sinks  in,  while  its  under  parts 
appear  thrust  outwards.  The  white  line  is  abnormally  broad,  its 
horn  is  '  cheesy,'  loose,  and  easily  broken  down  ;  as  a  consequence, 
the  relations  between  the  horny  wall  and  horny  sole  are  altered 
and  there  is  a  tendency  to  the  formation  of  hollow  wall.  If 
no  relapse  occurs,  recovery  sometimes  results,  the  new  horn 


Fig.  376. — Special  broad  shoe  for  laminitis,  with  two  toe-clips  and  a  frog-clip. 


growing  down  in  the  normal  direction  from  the  coronet, 
though  as  a  rule  the  horn  of  the  white  line  appears  altered  in 
character.  If,  however,  the  first  attack  be  severe  or  repeated, 
the  horny  sole  becomes  flattened  or  even  convex  around  the  toe 
in  consequence  of  descent  of  the  os  pedis.  In  aggravated  cases 
the  toe  of  the  os  pedis  may  penetrate  the  horny  sole  in  front 
of  the  frog.  The  wall  of  the  toe,  previously  little  changed,  is 
then  completely  distorted  and  bulged  outwards. 

Early  treatment  by  a  veterinary  surgeon  may  cut  short  the 
attack  and  entirely  prevent  the  changes  in  form  and  condition 
of  the  hoof,  but  when  this  is  neglected  the  disease  is  apt  to 


o 


98      INFLAMMATION   OF   STRUCTURES   ENCLOSED    BY   THE   HOOF. 

become  chronic,  and  pathological  changes  in  the  hoof  can  never 
be  completely  prevented. 

The  animal  may  certainly  recover  sufficiently  to  be  usedy 
but  its  gait  is  always  characteristic.  The  feet  are  not  lifted 
fairly  from  the  ground,  but  thrust  forvv^ard  and  set  dov^^n  heel 
first.     The  heels  of  the  shoe,  therefore,  wear  most. 

In  preparing  such  hoofs  for  shoeing,  a  large  amount  of  the 
prominent,  bulging  toe  may  be  removed  without  injury.  The 
sole  should  be  spared  and  the  heels  lowered  only  slightly. 

The  choice  of  a  shoe  depends  principally  on  the  condition 
of  the  sole.  When  this  still  remains  somewhat  concave  an 
ordinary  shoe  can  be  used,  but  if  it  is  flattened  or  absolutely 
convex  a  broad  shoe,  preferably  a  bar  shoe  (fig.  376),  should  be 
chosen,  especially  if  the  bearing  margin  of  the  wall  be  broken. 

As  long  as  the  -toe  continues  sensitive  toe-clips  should  be 
avoided  and  a  pair  of  side-clips  substituted,  the  portion  of  the 
wall  lying  between  the  clips  being  lowered  ^  inch  to  prevent 
pressure  on  the  diseased  toe  (see  fig.  375). 

In  horses  which  have  suffered  from  laminitis  the  shoe  is 
sometimes  displaced  forwards  on  account  of  the  animal's 
unequal  tread.  This  may  be  avoided  by  providing  each  heel 
or  the  heel  prolongation  with  a  clip  (fig.  376). 


7.  Keratomata,  or  Horn  Tumours, 

consist  in  thickening  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  horn  wall  (fig. 
377).  They  are  not  common.  Their  most  frequent  seat  is 
the  toe,  rarely  the  wall  of  the  quarter.  Gutenacker  regards 
them  as  due  to  chronic  inflammation  of  the  sensitive  wall  with 
suppuration  between  the  sensitive  and  horny  laminae.  The- 
pus  is  retained,  causes  partial  degeneration  of  the  sensitive 
laminae  and  separation  of  the  sensitive  from  the  horny  laminae. 
After  the  pus  has  escaped  through  a  passage  established  by 
pressure  or  through  an  artificial  opening,  the  space  left  is^ 
only  partially  filled  up,  and,  in  consequence  of  the  inflam- 
mation, small  prominences  form  on  the  free  margins  of  the 
sensitive  laminae,  which  are  the  chief  agents  in  the  production 
of  keratomata.  As  the  free  margins  of  the  sensitive  laminae 
increase  in  thickness  the  track  of  horn  they  secrete  becomes 


OBSTINATE   CHARACTER   OF   KER  ATOM  ATA. 


399 


wider.  The  keratoma  thus  produced  gradually  occupies  the 
formerly  empty  space,  and  in  its  turn  may  lead  to  partial 
atrophy  (pressure  atrophy)  of  the  os  pedis. 

Keratomata  may  be  caused  by  chronic  inflammation  un- 
accompanied by  suppuration.  The  cavity  in  the  os  pedis 
corresponds  in  form  and  extent  with  the  keratoma. 

Symptoms. — Horn  tumours  do  not  invariably  produce  lame- 
ness, but,  when  lameness  is  present,  pain,  increased  warmth  and 
pulsation  of  the  digital  arteries  may  usually  be  detected.  The 
growth  can  only  be  removed  after  it  reaches  the  bearing 
surface.      The  white  line  is  then  distorted  at  some  part  of  its 


Fig.  377.— a  piece  of  the  toe  wall  removed,  together  with  keratoma,    a,  coronary  margin  ; 
b,  plantar  margin ;  c,  keratoma  ;  d,  depression  containing  pus. 


course,  describing  a  semicircle  around  the  horn  tumour,  which 
appears  at  the  ground  surface  as  a  waxy-looking  body.  The 
new  growth  occasionally  undergoes  degeneration,  producing  a 
depression  of  varying  depth,  with  dark  coloured  walls,  from 
which  a  greyish-black  pus  is  sometimes  discharged. 

Causes. — Chronic  inflammation  of  the  sensitive  wall  conse- 
quent on  bruises,  pricks  in  shoeing,  clefts  in  the  horn,  corns,  or 
treads. 

The  prognosis  is  unfavourable  whether  lameness  exists  or 
not.  Under  any  circumstances  lameness  is  probable  and  liable 
to  recur  even  after  removal  of  the  growth. 

Treatment. — When    suppuration  has  seriously  affected    the 


400      INFLAMMATION   OF   STRUCTURES   ENCLOSED   BY  THE   HOOF. 

sensitive  wall,  or  when  severe  pain  has  existed  uninterruptedly 
for  a  long  time,  operation  is  advisable  and  can  only  be  suc- 
cessfully attempted  by  a  veterinary  surgeon.  If,  however, 
suppuration  is  only  slight,  and  pain  insignificant,  the  best 
treatment  is  to  thin  the  neighbouring  parts,  expose  the  sup- 
purating spot,  and  then  to  dress  and  plug  the  cavity  with  a 
20  per  cent,  solution  of  iodoform  in  ether.  This  treatment 
should  be  repeated  at  every  shoeing  until  improvement  occurs. 
The  latter,  however,  depends  principally  on  thorough  cutting 
out  and  cleansing  of  the  suppurating  spot. 

Shoeing. — When  the  wall  is  good  an  ordinary  shoe  is  suffi- 
cient, but  if  broken  away  or  diseased  a  bar  shoe,  well  seated 
out  at  the  affected  part,  is  preferable.  The  spot  itself  should 
be  relieved  of  all  pressure. 


8.  Canker  of  the  Frog  or  Sole 

is  a  peculiar  intractable  disease  of  the  corium,  which  always 
tends  to  become  aggravated,  and  which  is  attended  with  pro- 
liferation of  the  sensitive  papillae  or  laminae,  disturbance  in 
the  ordinary  formation  of  horn,  and  the  secretion  of  a  thick, 
offensively  smelling  lluid.  It  usually  begins  unnoticed  in  one 
of  the  lateral  furrows  of  the  frog,  less  frequently  in  the  sole, 
and  is  only  detected  after  having  made  considerable  progress. 
A  moist  discharging  spot,  from  which  the  horn  has  been 
shed,  is  then  noticed.  Its  base  is  pale  red,  swollen,  and  spongy, 
and  not  infrequently  the  sensitive  frog,  sole  or  wall  exhibits 
warty,  cauliflower-like  or  brushy  growths.  There  is  seldom 
lameness  at  this  stage.  The  disease  makes  steady  but  slow 
progress,  and  a  long  period  may  elapse  before  it  extends  from 
the  frog  to  the  wall.  At  a  later  period  the  hoof,  if  not  already 
very  oblique,  increases  in  width  towards  the  heels. 

The  causes  are  not  yet  sufficiently  known.  Slight  inflamma- 
tion due  to  bruising,  especially  when  the  corium  is  exposed,  is 
said  to  be  sufficient  to  cause  an  attack.  Although  canker  is 
quite  distinct  from  thrush,  the  latter  disease  seems  to  favour 
the  production  of  canker. 

The  prognosis  is  unfavourable  and  should  always  be  guarded. 
The  principal  indications  are  afforded  by  the  condition  of  the 


PROGNOSIS    AND   TREATMENT   OF   CANKER. 


401 


parts,  the  extent  of  the  disease,  the  length  of  time  it  has 
existed,  the  rapidity  of  its  return  after  treatment,  and  the 
number  of  feet  affected. 

Treatment  comprises  the  removal  of  all  loose  horn,  and  the 
careful  paring  away  and  exposure  of  the  diseased  spot.  For 
this  purpose  a  searcher,  scalpel,  and  forceps  are  required.  The 
parts  should  be  spared  as  much  as  possible  and  care  taken  that 
the  surface  in  which  the  sound  and  diseased  parts  meet  exhibits 


Fig.  378. — Shoe  prepared  for  canker  dressing. 
a,  heels  tapped  and  screwed ;  b,  depression 
for  talcing  the  tongue  of  the  cover  shown 
in  next  fig. 


Fig.  379.— Cover  for  above  shoe. 


no  hard  margins.  Bleeding  should,  if  possible,  be  avoided. 
The  paring,  therefore,  requires  some  skill.  The  parts  are  next 
thoroughly  cleansed  with  clean  lint  or  tow,  without  using  water, 
and  the  dressing  applied.  All  kinds  of  drugs  have  been  tried, 
some  with  good,  some  with  bad  results.  Distinct  granulations 
should  be  removed  by  the  use  of  mild  caustics  and  tlie  real 
curative  material  (generally  an  astringent  and  disinfectant) 
thereafter  applied.  Schleg  recommends  a  mixture  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  sulphate  of  iron,  and  pulverised  tormentilla  root  in 
the  proportions  of  1  : 2  :  3,  or  equal  parts  of  salicylic  acid  and 
pulverised  tormentilla  root.  Professor  Putz  suggests  nitrate  of 
lead.  When  the  materials  are  used  in  the  form  of  powder  they 
must  be  rubbed  in.  Finally  all  parts  denuded  of  horn  sliould  be 
subjected  to  moderate  regular  pressure  by  a  surgical  dressing, 
or  less  preferably  by  means  of  a  special  shoe  and  cover  (see 
fig.  380).     Wood  wool  or  jute  tampons  are  applied  to  the  spot, 

2c 


402      INFLAMMATION   OF   STKUCTUEES   ENCLOSED   BY   THE   HOOF. 

the  sheet  of  iron  slipped  into  position  and  fastened.  When 
the  diseased  parts  appear  very  dirty  it  is  useful  after  cleansing 
to  saturate  the  new  growtli  with  tincture  of  iodine.  The 
dressing  is  repeated  daily,  all  loose  fragments  of  horn  being 
carefully  removed.  At  a  later  stage  the  dressing  need  only  be 
applied  every  two  or  three  days.  The  special  shoe  presents 
nothing  peculiar  in  regard  to  form,  surface,  nail  holes,  etc. ;  but 


Fig.  380.— Special  shoe  for  canker,  with  cover  applied. 

is  made  specially  light  and  narrow,  and  presents  at  the  centre 
of  the  toe  a  depression  to  receive  the  point  on  the  front  of  the 
sheet-iron  cover.  The  outer  margin  of  the  cover  is  rounded 
off  and  rests  for  a  distance  of  about  -|-  inch  on  the  inner  and 
upper  margin  of  the  shoe,  which  is  seated  for  this  purpose. 
The  cover  should  not  touch  the  ground.  This  prevents  the 
front  of  the  cover  being  pressed  inwards.  According  to  the 
condition  and  position  of  the  diseased  spots  the  shoe  may  be 
varied. 


9.  Ossification  of  the  Lateral  Cartilages. 

Side  Bones. 

Lungwitz  states  that,  in   1251  horses  examined,  side  bones 
occurred  as  shown  in  annexed  table : — 


FREQUENCY   OF   OCCURRENCE   OF   SIDE   BONE. 


403 


Description. 


to 

a> 

3J   . 

-3  c 

O  « 

4J  O 

"H  — 

,!»  a, 

's  5 

=§3 

33   ! 

.  X! 

No. 
with 

Pel 

Remarks. 


Belgian  cart  horse, 

Danisli  carriage  horse, 
Heavy  riding  horse, 


Do., 

Light  riding  horse, 

Riding  horses  (various  weights), 
Military  horses,    . 


Officers'  horses  (heavy), 


98 

68 

69-5 

120 

25 

21 

388 

36 

9 

132 

•  •  • 

•  ■  • 

133 

8 

6 

140 

3 

2 

200 

1 

0-5 

40 

3 

1 

1 

7-5 

1251 

144 

14-4 

Working   only   on 

hard  pavements. 
Do. 
Working  in  heavy 

ground     and 

partly   on    hard 

pavements. 
Working  on  light 

sandy  soil. 
Working  on  light 

ground. 
Do. 
Working      on 

medium     heavy 

ground. 
Working  on  varied 

surfaces. 


1.  Ossification    of    the    lateral   cartilage    occurs   principally 
in    heavy,  coarse-bred    horses.      2.  The  fore    feet  suffer  more 


^i<-^ 


Fig.  381.— Left  fore-foot,  seen  from  the  outer  side.  The  .skin  has  been  partially  removed 
to  show  that  portion  (a)  of  the  lateral  cartilage  which  projects  above  the  hoof ; 
i»,  ligament  running  from  lateral  cartilage  to  fetlock,  one-third  natural  size. 

frequently    than  the  hind ;   3,  the  cartilage   of   the  left  hoof 
suffers   more    frequently  than  that   of   the  right ;  and  4,  the 


404      INFLAMMATION   OF   STRUCTURES   ENCLOSED    BY   THE   HOOF. 

outer   cartilage    suffers   more   frequently  than   the   inner.      5. 
Ossification  sometimes  occurs  at  an  early  age,  usually  when  the 


Fig.  382. — Pedal  bone,  with  almost  complete  ossification  of  the  lateral  cartilages,  a,  pedal 
bone ;  b,  wing  of  pedal  bone,  from  which  point,  as  a  rule,  ossification  commences ; 
c,  articular  surface  ;  d,  rough,  uueven  surfaces. 

animal  is  first  put  to  work.  6.  Well-bred  animals  suffer  less 
frequently  than  others.  7.  The  use  of  animals,  of  heavy  build, 
on  hard  roads  favours  the  occurrence  of  side  bone. 

The  symptoms  vary  according  to  whether  one  or  both  carti- 
lages are  atiected,  and  whether  ossification  is  partial  or  com- 
plete. Expansion  of  the  hoof  is  always  diminished,  and  may 
be  entirely  suspended. 

The  diagnosis  of  side  bone  is  easy  as  soon  as  the  upper 
margin  of  the  cartilage  has  become  ossified ;  it  then  feels  hard. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  ossification  has  only  attacked  the 
lower  portion  of  the  cartilage  lying  within  the  hoof,  it  is  either 
very  difficult  or  absolutely  impossible  to  detect  the  change, 
though  the  form  of  the  hoof  sometimes  gives  valuable  indica- 
tions. 

Side  bones  produce  a  clumsy  constrained  action  and  at  times 
marked  lameness.  The  symptoms  are  aggravated  by  rapid 
work  on  hard  roads,  by  allowing  the  hoofs  to  become  dry,  and 
by  using  high  calkins.  When,  however,  the  hoof  is  kept  moist, 
animals  may  work  for  a  long  time  without  inconvenience. 

The  causes  are  (1)  congenital  predisposition,  in  heavy,  coarse- 
bred  horses,  and  (2)  excessive  concussion  produced  by  w^ork  on 
hard  roads,  for  which  reason  the  disease  is  frequent  in  large 
towns.     The  fact  that  the  outer  half  of  the  foot  suffers  the 


CAUSES   AND   PROGNOSIS   OF   SIDE   BONE. 


405 


greater    shock     during     movement,    explains    why    the    outer 
cartilage  more  frequently  becomes  ossified  than  the  inner. 

The  prognosis  depends  on  the  horse's  work,  weight,  and 
breed,  on  the  form  of  the  hoof,  and  on  the  extent  of  ossifica- 
tion. Heavy  horses  with  completely  ossified  lateral  cartilages 
are  of  little  use  for  rapid  work  on  paved  streets.  When  only 
one  cartilage  is  affected,  or  when  the  animal  is  worked  on  soft 
ground,    side    bones    are    comparatively  unimportant.      Whilp 


Fig.  383.— Right  fore-foot  altered  in  form  in 
consequence  of  side  bone. 


Fig.  384.— Shoe  for  above  foot,  with  broad 
outer  hmb. 


ossification  is  in  active  progress  the  animal  goes  tender,  if  not 
actually  lame,  but  as  soon  as  it  becomes  complete  the  lameness 
tends  to  disappear,  though  it  readily  returns  in  consequence  of 
bruising  or  strain  if  the  tread  is  not  level.  Lameness  is 
usually  temporary,  but  the  diseased  cartilage  can  never  be 
restored  to  its  primitive  condition. 

After  ossification  is  complete,  lameness  may  be  produced  by 
bruising  of  the  plantar  cushion  and  of  the  sensitive  wall,  which 
are  then  enclosed  between  two  hard,  unyielding  structures  ; 
the  plantar  cushion,  being  confined  by  the  ossified  cartilages, 
can  expand  neither  towards  the  right  nor  left  at  the  moment 
at  which  weight  is  placed  on  the  foot  and  the  sensitive  wall 
being  similarly  placed  between  the  horny  wall  and  ossified 
cartilage.  A  partial  improvement  may  occur  when  the  plantar 
cushion  diminishes  in  volume.  If,  in  addition,  the  wall  is 
contracted  at  the  heels,  the  condition  is  even  more  serious. 


406      INFLAMMATION   OF   STRUCTURES   ENCLOSED   BY  THE   HOOF. 

In  shoeing  animals  with  side  bone  it  is  important  to  know 
whether  the  condition  is  uni-  or  bi-lateral.  In  side  bone  of  the 
outer  heel  the  wall  of  that  side  is  comparatively  immobile,  and 
the  corresponding  quarter  and  heel  of  the  shoe  is  excessively 
worn.  On  removing  the  shoe  the  outer  wall  is  found  much 
higher  than  the  inner.  The  external  heel  of  the  shoe  is  thin, 
the  internal  comparatively  little  worn.  The  hoof  is  either 
unchanged  in  form  or  the  wall  of  the  outer  heel  is  contracted, 
and  sometimes  covered  with  rings  (fig.  383).  The  outer  por- 
tion of  the  coronet  is  more  prominent,  and  the  outer  limb  of 
the  frog  smaller  than  the  inner.  Bruises  or  strains  in  the 
wall  not  infrequently  exist. 

The  shoe  should  be  flat,  the  outer  limb  broader  than 
usual,  the  seatinsj  out  should  terminate  behind  the  last  nail 
hole,  so  that  the  entire  breadth  of  the  heel  surface  may  form 
a  horizontal  plane  (fig.  384).  The  outer  wall  should  be  lowered 
more  than  the  inner,  and  the  shoe  so  formed  that  its  inner 
limb  fits  as  close  as  possible,  the  outer  being  left  sufficiently 
wide  to  meet  a  perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the  coronet. 
The  supporting  surface  is  thus  widened  towards  the  outside, 
and,  in  consequence  of  the  level  tread,  more  even  wearing  of 
the  shoe  produced. 

When  both  lateral  cartilages  are  ossified,  a  thick  leather 
sole  materially  assists  in  diminishing  shock.  Special  deeply- 
fullered  shoes  with  rope  inlay  are  also  of  value,  but  pads  and 
bar  shoes  seem  (in  theory  at  least)  contra-indicated,  and,  at 
first,  cause  pain  by  pressing  on  the  frog  and  so  tending  to 
thrust  asunder  parts  that  are  now  unyielding. 

Side  bones  are  often  accompanied  by  corns,  which  are 
usually  extremely  persistent.  As,  however,  these  are  not 
primary  but  secondary  conditions,  they  deserve  less  attention 
when  choosing  and  fitting  the  shoe  than  the  ossification. 
Under  these  circumstances  '  springing '  the  heels,  which  is 
frequently  practised  in  order  to  relieve  corns,  produces  local 
strain  and  pain,  and  should  be  avoided. 

Treatment  consists  in  applications  which  soften  and  cool 
the  hoof.  In  work,  the  hoof  should  be  moistened  daily,  and 
afterwards  smeared  with  some  fat  or  ointment  so  as  to 
preserve  the  elasticity  of  the  horn. 


definition  and  symptoms  of  navicular  disease.      407 

10.  Naviculak  Disease 

is  a  chronic  inflammation  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  navicular 
bone  and  the  portion  of  flexor  perforans  tendon  passing  below 
it. 

The  disease  consists  essentially  in  cluiDge  in  the  gliding 
surface  of  the  navicular  bone  and  of  the  cartilage  covering  it. 
The  previously  smooth  surface  of  the  bone  becomes  roughened, 
the  tendon  abraded,  inflammation  then  increases,  the  portions 


Fig.  385. — Preparation  illustrating  navicular  disease.  1,  os  pedis;  2,  flexor  pedis  perforans 
tendon  drawn  downwards;  3,  lower  (gliding)  surfitce  of  the  navicular  bone;  4,  coronet 
bone  ;  a  and  b,  roughened,  abraded  spots  on  the  flexor  perforans  tendon;  c,  eroded  spots 
on  the  navicular  bone ;  d,  proliferations  from  periosteum  on  the  upper  margin  of  the  os 
pedis. 


of  the  tendon  involved  may,  in  extreme  cases,  become  necrotic, 
and  still  further  aggravate  the  existing  mischief;  finally, 
periostitis  and  rarefying  ostitis  set  in,  and  deposits  form 
around  the  margins  of  the  bone. 

Occurre7ice. — The  lameness  usually  affects  one  or  both  of  the 
fore-feet.     Horses  with  very  concave  soles  appear  more  subject 


408      INFLAMMATION   OF   STRUCTURES   ENCLOSED   BY  THE .  HOOF. 

to  it  than  those  with  flat  hoofs.      Compared  with  other  forms 
of  lameness  it  may  be  said  to  be  rare. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptoms  are  slight  tenderness  on 
starting ;  the  animal  goes  rather  short  or  stumbles,  but  this 
soon  wears  off.  Next,  the  foot  or  feet  are  '  rested '  after  any 
considerable  exertion,  but  in  many  cases  it  is  only  after 
months  that  the  symptoms  become  distinct.  The  foot  is  then 
extended  and  directed  slightly  towards  the  side,  the  fetlock  is 
more  upright  in  order  to  minimise  tension  on  the  flexor  pedis 
perforans  tendon,  the  gait  becomes  clumsy  and  difiicult, 
especially  at  the  beginning  of  movement  and  on  hard,  uneven 
ground.  When  only  one  hoof  suffers,  there  is  distinct 
lameness,  but  when  both  are  affected,  the  gait  is  short  and 
cramped,  and  the  animal  seems  to  suffer  most  at  the  moment 
when  weight  falls  .on  the  limb.  Where  the  disease  is  well 
developed,  the  fore-limb  is  advanced  with  the  toe  first,  and  the 
pace  comes  to  resemble  a  run.  Attention  to  the  feet  and  rest 
diminish  the  symptoms.  The  lameness  is  most  marked  on 
leaving  the  stable,  but  diminishes  as  the  animal  moves;  after 
some  considerable  time,  liowever,  especially  if  the  pace  be 
rapid,  lameness  returns. 

In  old  standing  cases  the  hoof  is  contracted.  On  compress- 
ing the  heels  or  the  body  of  the  frog  pain  is  evinced.  Increased 
pulsation  of  the  digital  arteries  and  increased  warmth  of  the 
hoof  are  seldom  present,  but  pain  and  thickening  of  the  flexor 
tendons  in  the  depression  of  the  heel  can  sometimes  be  noted. 
When  the  foot  is  oblique  contraction  soon  sets  in.  Slight 
rings  sometimes  form  on  the  horny  wall.  Any  considerable 
weight  thrown  on  the  diseased  hoof  causes  pain,  especially 
when  the  horse  has  prominent  frogs  and  is  unshod.  Sometimes 
there  is  atrophy  of  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder  and  fore-arm. 

The  causes  are  severe  strains,  due  to  severe  rapid  work  on 
hard,  rough,  or  frozen  streets.  The  lameness  is  most  frequent 
in  riding  horses. 

The  prognosis  is  unfavourable,  for  even  when  the  diseased 
process  can  be  checked  the  freedom  of  movement  never  com- 
pletely returns,  because  the  destructive  changes  which  have 
taken  place  are  permanent.  The  animal's  worth  is  thus 
greatly  diminished. 

Treatment,  strictly  speaking,  is  only  palliative.     Attempts 


SYMPTOMS   AND   TREATMENT   OF   NAVICULAR   DISEASE. 


409 


should  be  made  to  diminish  the  pressure  between  the  navicular 
bone  and  flexor  pedis  perforans  tendon,  and,  in  the  early  stages, 
to  diminish  inflammation.  First  of  all  the  hoof  must  be 
softened  and  permitted  to  dilate.  The  shoe  should  be  removed 
and  the  entire  hoof  immersed  for  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours  in  a  poultice,  frequently  moistened  with  lukewarm 
water.      The  hoof  is  then  trimmed  and  shod.      The  points  to 


Fig.  386. 


Fig.  387. 


Fig.  388. 


Fig.  386. — Showing  normal  relations  of  the  bones  of  the  foot  and  of  the  flexor  perforans 
tendon. 

Fig.  387. — Formation  causing  increased  strain  on  navicular  bone  and  perforans  tendon. 

Fig.  388. — Showing  the  manner  of  trimming  the  hoof  so  as  to  diminish,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  effects  of  navicular  disease.    (The  above  illustrations  are  diagrammatic.) 

remember  are  (1)  that  the  hoof  should  be  somewhat  more 
upright  than  the  fetlock,  and  (2)  that  it  should  be  dilated. 
The  toe  is,  therefore,  lowered  freely,  but  the  heels  spared. 
The  frog  is  cut  down  to  the  height  of  the  bearing  margins  of 
the  heels  and  a  flat  shoe,  with  thin  heels  and  bar-clips,  applied 
and  dilated  to  the  extent  of  about  i  inch.  The  toe  should  be 
'  rolled.' 

For  the  next  four  to  six  weeks  the  feet  should  be  kept  well 
moistened.  At  night  the  animal  should  be  bedded  down  with 
good  straw.  The  hoof,  if  its  form  allow,  should,  during  this 
time,  be  once  or  twice  redilated.  In  any  case,  however,  pre- 
cautions should  be  taken  by  using  fa't  or  ointment  to  prevent 
the  horn  becoming  dry.  If  a  long  rest  cannot  be  given  the 
coronets  may  be  repeatedly  blistered  with  a  1  to  8  ointment 
of  biniodide  of  mercury.  As  neither  shoeing,  nor  the  use  of 
the  firing  iron,  nor  of  blisters  completely  restores  the  action, 
neurectomy  has,  for  many  years,  been  resorted  to  as  a  remedy. 
It  certainly  removes  sensation  from  the  foot  and  once  more 
renders  the  animal  useful,  but  the  foot  is  then  no  longer  spared, 
and  when  the  animal,  especially  if  a  hunter,  is  used  on  hard 


410   INFLAMMATION  OF  STRUCTURES  ENCLOSED  BY  THE  HOOF. 

ground,  the  pedal  or  navicular  bone  may  be  fractured.  Not 
infrequently  the  flexor  tendons  undergo  a  kind  of  colloid  de- 
generation and  become  ruptured. 

So  far  as  shoeing  is  concerned,  tlie  before-mentioned  prin- 
ciples apply.  Bar  shoes  are  contra-indicated  and  horses  usually 
go  best  in  ordinary  shoes,  especially  those  which  raise  the  back 
of  the  hoof,  that  is,  shoes  with  thick  heels  or  with  calkins. 
Attempts  may  with  advantage  be  made  to  dilate  the  hoof  and 
to  diminish  concussion.  The  action  of  a  shoe  which  raises  the 
back  of  the  hoof  will  immediately  be  seen  from  the  diagram- 
matic figs.  386,  387,  and  388. 

The  improvement  produced  by  high  heels  depends  on  the 
concussion  being  conveyed  in  greater  degree  to  the  pedal  bone, 
while  pressure  on  the  perforans  tendon  is  diminished. 

11.  Curb,  Strain  of  Flexor  Tendons,  and  Capped  Elbow. 

Special  shoes  have  been  devised  for  the  treatment  of  each  of 
these  conditions.  A  few  notes  on  some  of  those  more  com- 
monly employed  are  given  below. 


STAMPED  WEDGE-HEELED  HIND  SHOE 

(Figs.  389,  390). 

Made  from  f  X  -I-  inch  iron. 

The  above  shoe  is  intended  to  give  relief  in  cases  of  curb, 
spavin,  or  injury  to  ligaments  and  tendons,  by  raising  the  heels 
of  the  hind-foot.  Should  the  horse  not  be  lame  or  be  adjudged 
by  the  veterinary  surgeon  to  be  capable  of  light  work,  he  may 
be  worked  in  this  shoe. 

The  height  of  the  wedges  is  l|  inches. 


Fig.  389. — Stamjted  wedge-heeled  hind  shoe.     JVIade  from  5  x  ^  inch  iron. 


Fig.  390. 


[To  face  p.  410. 


Fig.  391.— Fullered  wedge-heeled  hind  shoe  (lor  liarness  horse). 
Made  from  3  x  ^  inch  iron. 


Fig.  392.— Fullered  patten  hind  shoe.     Made  from  |  x  g  inch  iron. 


To  face  p.  411.1 


SHOES   FOR   DISEASED   HOOKS    AND   INJURED   TENDONS.        411 


FULLERED  WEDGE-HEELED  HIND  SHOE 
FOR  HARNESS  HORSE  (Fig.  391). 

Made  from  |^  X  J  inch  iron. 

Many  horses  suffering  from  diseased  hocks  and  tendons  can 
be  worked  in  this  shoe,  the  purpose  of  which  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  shoe  preceding,  save  that  it  is  for  a  lighter  class  of  horse. 

The  height  of  the  wedges  is  1^  inches. 


FULLERED  PATTEN  HIND  SHOE  (Fig.   392). 
Made  from  ;|  X  -f  inch  iron. 

Patten  shoes  are  intended  for  horses  suffering  from  injuries 
to  tendons  and  ligaments,  but  which  must  necessarily  be  rested. 
That  shown  is  suitable  for  a  thoroughbred. 

The  patten  (sometimes  termed  '  staple ')  is  only  1|^  inches 
in  height  and  is  set  on  obliquely,  so  that  the  cross  bar  rests  flat 
on  the  ground. 

It  is  made  separately  from  tlie  shoe,  and  after  the  usual 
fitting  is  complete  is  '  shut-on'  to  the  shoe. 

A  defect  in  the  shoe  illustrated  is  that  the  nail  holes  extend 
rather  too  far  back. 


412      INFLAMMATION   OF   STRUCTURES   ENCLOSED   BY   THE   HOOF. 


STAMPED  PATTEN  (OE  '  STAPLE ')  POKE  SHOE 

(FiCx.  393). 

Made  from  J  X  ^  inch  iron. 

The  shoe  illustrated  is  for  a  recent  and  severe  case  of  '  break- 
down '"  or  cut  tendon,  where  the  tendon  has  been  more  or  less 
severed.  It  affords  by  far  the  safest  and  most  convenient 
method  of  raising  the  heel  under  such  circumstances. 

The  staple  is  rather  more  than  3  inches  in  height. 


STAMPED  PATTEN  (OE  'STAPLE')  HIND  SHOE 

(Fig.  394). 

Made  from  ;|  X  ^  inch  iron. 

This  shoe  is  only  for  animals  which  are  resting,  either  in  the 
stable  or  in,  say,  a  straw  yard.  Its  purpose  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  other  staple  shoe  described. 

The  staple  is  three  inches  high,  and  spreads  outwards  as  it 
approaches  the  ground,  so  as  to  give  a  wide  base  of  support. 
With  this  object  the  sides  are  bent  outwards  and  the  bottom  is 
set  on  obliquely,  so  that  when  the  shoe  is  affixed  and  the  animal 
stands  upon  it  the  whole  of  the  bottom  bar  is  in  contact  with 
the  ground. 


Fig.  393. — Stamped  patten  fore  shoe.     JNIade  from  f  x  ."^  inch  iron. 


Fig.  394. — Stamped  patten  hind  shoe.     jNFade  from  ^  x  ^  inch  iron. 

[To  face  p.  412. 


Fig.  395. — Patten  hind  shoe.     Made  from  f  x  |  inch  iron. 


Fig.  396. — Fullered  seated  fore  shoe.     INIade  from  §  x  |  inch  iron. 
To /ace  p.  413.]  • 


SHOES   FOR   CURB,  STRAINED    TENDONS,   AND   CAPPED   ELBOW.      413 


PATTEN  HIND  SHOE  (Fig.  395). 
Made  from  J  X  |-  inch  iron. 

The  shoe  from  which  this  iUustration  is  made  was  for  a  foot 
4j  inches  in  width.  The  patten  is  4  inches  in  height,  and  has 
two  holes  in  the  uprights  through  which  straps  are  passed  and 
secured,  through  the  medium  of  a  pad,  above  the  hock.  The 
pad  which  is  fixed  on  the  hock  has  a  buckle  on  either  side  to 
receive  the  straps. 

This  shoe  is  for  cases  where  the  flexor  tendons  of  the  hind 
leg  have  been  partially  divided,  as  happens  in  race  horses  when 
they  are  struck  by  the  fore-foot  of  the  animal  immediately 
following,  and  in  other  animals  under  a  variety  of  circumstances. 
The  horse  must  necessarily  be  placed  in  slings. 


FULLERED  SEATED  FORE  SHOE  (Fig.  396). 

Made  from  -g-  X  ^  inch  iron. 

To  prevent  horses  bruising  their  elbows,  and  so  producing 
the  unsightly  swelling  termed  capped  elbow,  the  shoes  must  be 
sloped  off  very  obliquely  at  the  heels,  which  should  be  kept  of 
a  rounded  form,  and  should  closely  follow  the  contour  of  the 
foot,  i.e.,  should  be  fitted  '  fine.'  This  is,  in  fact,  one  of  the  few 
conditions  in  which  'fine  '  fitting  at  the  heels  is  necessary  or 
desirable. 


I 


APPENDIX  A. 

THE  SHOEING  OF  OXEN. 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE  STRUCTUKE  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  OX'S  FOOT. 

As  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  shoe  oxen  employed  for  work, 
a  short  anatomical  description  of  the  foot  may  not  be  inappro- 
priate. The  ox's  foot  differs  from  that  of  the  horse  in  possess- 
ing two  distinct  toes,  each  consisting  of  three  bones,  like  the 
single  toe  of  the  horse,  but  presenting  certain  special  anatomical 
features  of  its  own.  The  rounded  or  triangular  horny  appen- 
dages at  the  posterior  surface  of  the  fetlock  joint  are  termed 
after-claws.     They  need  not  occupy  our  further  attention. 

The  low^er  end  of  the  metacarpal  bone  is  divided  by  a  deep 
cleft  into  two  distinct  parts,  an  inner  and  an  outer,  each  of 
which  comports  itself  to  its  particular  toe  just  as  the  lower 
end  of  the  great  metacarpus  of  the  horse  to  its  single  toe. 
In  other  words,  each  portion  of  the  lower  end  of  the  metacarpus 
presents  an  articular  surface,  which  forms,  with  its  special 
pastern  and  two  sesamoid  bones,  a  distinct  ginglymoid  joint ; 
the  ox  in  fact  has,  at  the  point  where  the  horse's  fetlock  joint 
occurs,  two  fetlock  joints.  With  regard  to  individual  bones, 
the  two  first  bones  of  the  toes  or  phalanges  in  form  and  relation 
resemble  to  a  considerable  extent  the  first  phalanx  of  the 
horse,  though  they  are  comparatively  shorter  and  weaker.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  two  coronet  bones  or  second  phalanges, 
which  are  comparatively  somewhat  longer  than  the  horse's 
coronet    bone,  and    differ   from    it  in   that   their   two   lateral 


416 


STRUCTURE   AND   FUNCTIONS   OF   THE   OX  S   FOOT. 


surfaces,  which  meet  in  front,  are  of  a  more  triangular  form. 
The  upper  articular  surface  of  each  coronet  bone  is  concave, 
the  lower  is  convex,  and  extends  almost  as  far  backwards  as 
the  middle  of  the  posterior  surface. 

The  third  phalanx,  or  bone  of  the  claw,  however,  differs 
markedly  from  the  horse's  pedal  bone.  The  claw  bone  is 
peculiarly  formed,  having  been  compared  to  a  wedge  or  three- 
sided  pyramid,  the  point  of  which  is  directed  forwards  and 
downwards.  Each  claw  bone  presents  an  upper  or  articular 
surface,  an  outer  turned  away  from  the  cleft  of  the  hoof,  au 
inner  turned  towards  it,  a  lower  surface,  an  anterior  and  a 
posterior  end,  and   three   margins.      The    articular   surface   is 


Fig.  397. — Antero-external  view  of  ox's  left  fore-foot.  1,  lower  eud  of  metacarpal  bone ; 
2,  external  sesamoid  bone;  3,  external,  and  3',  internal  pastern  bone;  4,  external,  and 
4'  internal  coronet  bone  ;  5,  external,  and  5',  internal  claw  bone ;  6,  left  navicular  bone. 

concave  and  extends  forwards  and  upwards  as  the  pyramidal 
process.  The  outer  surface  is  slightly  convex,  with  numerous 
small  apertures  and  with  a  flat  groove  or  furrow  running  from 
behind  forwards.  The  slightly  concave  inner  surface  exhibits 
at  its  upper  posterior  part  a  large  aperture,  corresponding  to 
the  plantar  foramen  (see  p.  29),  and  extending  into  the 
interior  of  the  bone.  The  lower  surface  slopes  away  from  the 
cleft  of  the  hoof  towards  the  outside.  It  is  comparatively 
smooth  and  provided  on  its  lower  part  with  a  shallow  groove. 
The  anterior  margin  formed  by  the  union  of  the  outer  and 
inner  surfaces  is  blunt,  the  outer  margin  sharp  and  curved,  the 


ANATOMY  OF  OX's  FOOT.  417 

inner  margin,  in  consequence  of  the  groove  above  it,  exhibits  a 
ledge  at  its  anterior  part.  The  front  end  is  pointed,  the  back 
is  blunt,  and  exhibits  a  transverse  furrow,  covered  with  carti- 
lage, for  articulation  with  the  navicular  bone.  In  oxen  the 
prolongations  corresponding  to  the  wings  of  the  horse's  pedal 
bone  are  absent  and  there  are  no  lateral  cartilages. 

In  oxen,  as  in  horses,  the  joints  are  completed  by  other  small 
bones,  which,  in  general,  resemble  the  sesamoid  and  navicular 
bones  but  are  somewhat  smaller.  Each  fetlock  joint  has  two 
sesamoids  and  each  claw  joint  a  navicular  bone. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  connections  of  the  joints  with  one 
another  and  with  the  bones  named  resemble  those  of  the  horse, 
especially  in  regard  to  the  lateral  and  capsular  ligaments. 

The  chief  differences  are  as  follows.  The  suspensory  liga- 
ment of  the  sesamoid  bones  or  superior  metacarpo-phalangeal 
ligament  exhibits  more  muscular  fibre  than  in  the  horse.  As 
it  serves  both  fetlock  joints  it  is  divided  at  the  posterior  surface 
of  the  great  metacarpal  into  three  parts,  two  lateral,  small  in 
size,  and  a  strong  central  ligament.  The  two  lateral  ligaments 
extend  to  the  two  outer  sesamoid  bones  and  send  in  addition  a 
cord  (ligamentum  extensorum)  to  the  extensor  tendons  of  theii' 
respective  claws  (fig.  398,  4').  The  middle  and  strongest  limb 
divides  a  short  distance  below  into  three  parts,  the  two  lateral 
of  which  run  to  the  two  inner  sesamoid  bones.  The  middle 
portion,  on  the  other  hand,  passes  in  a  forward  direction  through 
the  groove  on  the  lower  end  of  the  great  metacarpus,  then 
divides  into  two  branches,  which  join  the  extensor  tendons  of 
the  inner  and  outer  claws  respectively  (fig.  398,  4"). 

The  inferior  sesamoideal  ligament  is  absent. 

The  suftraginis  or  pastern  bone  and  the  bone  of  the  claw  are 
connected  by  external  and  internal  suffragino-pedal  ligaments, 
which  are  particularly  strong  and  unite  with  the  ligamentous 
tissues  arisinoj  from  the  coronet  bone. 

The  cruciform  ligament  or  transverse  ligament  of  the  toe  con- 
necting the  two  claws  consists  of  two  cords,  which  arise  from 
the  postero-superior  parts  of  the  coronet  bones  turned  away 
from  the  cleft  of  the  claw,  run  obliquely  downwards,  become 
more  or  less  intimately  fused  at  the  point  where  they  cross, 
and  are  finally  insei  ted  into  the  inner  {i.e.,  opposin^O  surfaces  of 
the  claw  bones  and  into  the  inner  extremities  of   che  navicular 

2d 


418 


-'r 


STRUCTURE   AND   FUNCTIONS   OF   THE   OX  S   FOOT. 


bones.  They  cover  the  posterior  surfaces  of  the  perforans 
tendons  of  the  claw,  and  serve  principally  to  prevent  the  claws 
being  too  widely  separated. 

The  movements  of  the  joints  of  the  toe  are  effected  by 
muscles  lying  in  the  region  of  the  fore-arm,  and  arranged  in 
general  like  the  analogous  muscles  of  the  horse.  As,  however, 
in  the  ox  the  muscles  and  tendons  are  attached  to  a  double 
limb  below  the  fetlock,  some  differences  necessarily  exist. 

Each  of  tlie  two  claws  has  a  separate  extensor  muscle,  as 
well  as  a  muscle  w^hich  is  common  to  both  claws.  The  muscle 
corresponding  to   the    extensor  suffraginis  of  the  horse   is,  in 


Fig.  398.— Atitero-external  view  of  ox's  left  fore-foot.  1,  extensor  tendon  of  outer  claw; 
2,  extensor  tendon  of  inner  claw;  3,  extensor  tendon  common  to  both  claws;  3',  limb  of 
do.  attached  to  left,  and  3",  to  right  claw;  4,  superior  sesamoideal  ligament;  4'  and  4", 
reinforcing  slips  from  same  to  extensor  tendon ;  5,  left  '  after-claw.' 


the  ox,  the  extensor  of  the  outer  claw.  From  the  compound 
extensor  of  the  foot,  which  consists  of  several  masses  of  muscle, 
two  tendons  spring  ;  one  passes  to  the  bones  of  the  inner  claw 
becoming  the  extensor  tendon  of  the  inner  claw,  the  other 
passes  down  the  centre  of  the  great  metacarpal  bone  and  at  its 
lower  end  divides  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  is  attached  to 
the  pedal  bone  of  the  outer,  the  other  to  the  pedal  bone  of  the 
inner  toe. 

The  arrangement  in  the  hind-foot  is  similar.  The  extensor 
(peroneus),  whose  tendon  in  the  horse  runs  parallel  with  that 
of  the  extensor  pedis,  is  in  the  ox  the  extensor  of  the  outer 


ANATOMY   OF   OX'S    FOOT.  419 

elaw.      The  extensor  pedis  becomes  the  exteusor  of  the  inner 
claw  and  also  acts  in  connnon  on  both  claws. 

•  The  arrangement  of  tlie  Hexor  pedis  perforans  and  perforatus 
tendons  is  rather  more  complicated  than  in  the  horse.  Suffice 
it,  however,  for  our  purpose  to  say  that  the  tendon  of  the 
superficial  flexor  perforatus  of  the  toe  forms  a  sheath  for  the 
tendon  of  the  deep  flexor  (perforans).  Tliis  sheath  divides  on 
either  side,  forming  a  kind  of  channel,  which  surrounds  each 
limb  of  the  deep  flexor  after  its  division.  The  tendons  of  the 
superficial  flexor,  which  are  pierced  by  those  of  the  deep  flexor 
near  the  upper  end  of  the  suffraginis  bone,  become  inserted 
into  the  lower  end  of  the  suffraginis,  and  (chiefly)  the  supero- 
posterior  part  of  the  coronet  bone  of  either  claw.  Each  of  two 
limbs  of  the  tendon  of  the  deep  flexor  of  the  toe  (perforans 
tendon)  is  attached  to  the  postero-inferior  surface  of  its 
respective  pedal  bone. 

The  tendons  of  the  flexor  muscles  are  held  in  place  by  a 
tendino-ligamentous  apparatus  and  by  strong  transverse  liga- 
ments. The  limbs  of  the  flexor  pedis  tendons  are  also  supported 
by  the  cruciform  inter-digital  ligaments. 

As  already  stated,  lateral  cartilages  and  plantar  cushion  are 
absent  in  the  ox. 

In  relation  to  the  blood-vessels  it  should  be  noted  that  in 
the  fore-foot  the  main  artery  passes  from  behind  forwards 
between  the  two  after-claws  towards  the  cleft  of  the  foot, 
whilst  that  passing  down  the  anterior  surface  of  the  great 
metacarpal  runs  in  an  opposite  direction,  that  is,  backwards, 
towards  the  same  space.  The  inner  digital  arteries  are  far 
laroer  than  the  outer.  The  veins  do  not  form  such  rich 
plexuses  as  in  the  horse. 

The  digital  nerves  in  their  general  distribution  resemble 
those   of   the   horse. 

With  a  few  exceptions  the  protective  structures  of  the 
terminal  digits  correspond  with  those  of  the  horse.  The  skin 
is  specially  modified  as  in  the  latter  to  form  a  honi-secreting 
structure  in  which  a  perioplic  band,  coronary  band,  sensitive  wall 
and  sensitive  sole  may  be  distinguished ;  the  sensitive  frog  is 
absent.  The  perioplic  band  lies  between  the  skin  and  coronary 
band  and  surrounds  each  toe  like  a  ring.  Posteriorly  it  becomes 
much  broader  and  forms  slight  bulbs,  which  may  be  connected 


420 


STRUCTURE   AND  FUNCTIONS   OF  THE  OX  S   FOOT. 


with  those  of  the  opposite  claw  by  a  more  or  less  well-marked 
bridge.  The  coronary  band  lies  between  the  perioplic  band 
and  sensitive  wall.  It  is  comparatively  broad  but  flat.  At 
its  broadest  spot  it  may  measure,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
animal,  as  much  as  li  inches.  In  the  direction  of  the  bulbs 
it  first  becomes  slender  and  then  totally  disappears. 

The  sensitive  wall  covers  the  two  lateral  surfaces  and  the 
anterior  margin  of  the  bone  of  the  claw ;  it  extends  from  the 
coronary  band  downwards  to  the  plantar  margin,  and  back- 
wards as  far  as  the  bidbs.  It  exhibits  a  large  number  of 
parallel  lamina',  which  decrease  in  length  towards  the  bulbs 
and  to  a  more  marked  deoree  on  the  inner  than  on  the  outer 
surface  of  the  claw.  The  number  of  lamina^  may  be  estimated 
at  about  a  thousand. 


t     3 


Fig.  399.— Supero-postevior  view  of  an  ox's  lioof  removed  by  maceration  (seen  from  the 
iinier  side).  Ihe  inner  wall  is  foreshortened  owinj>;  to  the  point  of  view.  1,  periople, 
which  at  1'  becomes  continuous  with  the  bulbs;  2,  furrow  for  reception  of  coronary 
bjiud;  3,  laminal  sheath  of  the  outer  wall,  and  ;>',  of  the  inner  wall;  4,  upper  surface  of 
sole. 

The  sensitive  sole  covers  the  under  surface  of  the  bone  of 
the  claw  and  extends  in  a  backward  direction,  becomino-  con- 
tinuous  with  that  portion  of  the  coronary  band  forming  the 
bulbs,  there  being  no  distinct  boundary  between  the  two 
structures. 

With  the  exception  of  the  sensitive  wall  the  portions  named 
display  a  number  of  very  small  papilla}  from  which  the  horn 
of  the  claw  is  secreted,  the  best  marked  and  largest  appearing 
at  the  perioplic  band.  In  the  ox  the  laminie  of  the  sensitive 
wall  exhibit  no  secondary  lamina?  such  as  have  been  described 
as  existing  on  the  sensitive  lamina  of  the  horse. 

The  horny  claw  is  the  product  of  this  specially  modified 
corium.  It  may,  in  general  terms,  be  compared  with  the  half 
of  a  horse's  hoof,  from  which,  however,  the  frog  is  absent.     We 


THE  ox's  HOOF.  421 

distinguish  in  it  a  wall  and  a  sole.  Thd  wall  can  again  l:>e 
divided  into  an  outer  and  an  inner  part.  The  portion  furthest 
from  tlie  cleft  of  the  foot,  i.e.,  the  outer  part,  is  convex  and 
somewhat  curved  inwards  at  the  toe.  Thci  portion  towards 
the  cleft  is  smooth  and  usually  sliglitly  concave.  The  two 
sides  of  the  wall  meet  in  a  blunt,  somewhat  elongated  anterior 
border.  The  upper  part  of  the  horny  wall  or  perioplic  ring 
is  formed  by  the  perioplic  band  and  runs  backwards  to 
form  the  rounded  horny  bulbs.  The  coronary  band  rests  in 
a  flat,  broad  furrow  at  the  upper  part  of  the  wall.  The  horny 
laminie  of  tlie  wall  correspond  in  number  and  size  to  the 
sensitive  laminaj.  The  space  Ijelow  marginated  by  the  wall  is 
enclosed  by  the  horny  sole,  which  in  front  is  pointed  and  very 
strong  and  towards  the  back  becomes  continuous  with  the  horny 
bulbs.  The  horny  bulbs  of  the  two  toes  are  sometimes  con- 
nected by  a  bridge  of  soft  horn.  The  wall  is  imited  to  the 
horny  sole  through  the  medium  of  the  white  line  as  in  the 
horse.  Needless  to  say  that  in  oxen,  in  which  the  walls  are 
not  bent  inwards  as  in  the  horse,  the  bars  are  wanting.  Th(» 
claws  of  the  hind-foot  are  somewhat  longer  and  more  slender 
than  those  of  the  fore-foot. 


CHAPTERIL 

THE  SHOEING  OF  OXEN. 

The:  slioemo-  of  oxen  differs  essentially  from  that  of  horses, 
because  the  ox's  foot  is  cloven,  while  the  pastern,  coronet,  and 
pedal  bones  are  in  duplicate.  The  ox,  therefore,  may  be  said 
to  have  on  each  limb  two  hoofs,  termed  claws,  which  can  be 
distinguished  as  an  outer  and  an  inner.  The  walls  are  thinner 
than  those  of  the  horse.  The  sole  is  thin  and  the  bulbs  low. 
As  a  consequence  the  shoe  must  be  thin  and  broad.      The  nail 


Fig.  400. — Ox'.s  claw  with  shoe  attached. 


holes  should  be  punched  fine  and  the  nails  should  be  short  but 
strong.  Each  shoe  is  provided  with  a  long  thin  clip  at  the 
inner  margin  of  the  toe,  which  is  bent  upwards  and  outwards 
around  the  point  of  the  claw  (fig.  400).  A  clip  on  the  outer 
margin  of  the  shoe  increases  the  hold.  In  the  Saxon  Voigtland 
the  inner  clip,  which  lies  in  the  cleft  of  the  claw,  starts  from 


MEANS   OF   RESTRAINT. 


423 


the  posterior  third  of  the  shoe  and  is  then  bent  forwards, 
upwards,  and  outwards  over  the  wall  of  the  toe.  The  smaller 
clip  is  at  the  outer  part  of  the  toe,  close  to  the  anterior  margin 
of  the  shoe.  This  shoe  (fig.  401)  is  more  ditiicult  to  fashion, 
but  when  well  made  fits  better  than  any  other.  To  apply  a 
single  shoe  to  the  two  claws  would,  of  course,  prevent  the 
natural  movement  of  the  parts. 

The  fixing  of  the  foot  for  shoeing  is  often  very  difficult.  It 
is  first  necessary  to  fasten  the  animal's  head  to  a  tree  or  wall. 
The  fore-foot  is  then  secured  with  a  broad  piece  of  webbing, 
which  is  thrown  over  the  withers  and  held  on  tlie  opposite 
side.  The  hind-foot  is  lifted  by  means  of  a  round  piece  of 
wood  thrust  in  front  of  one  hock  and  above  the  other  and 
grasped  by  two  men,  or  may  be  kept  bent  by  applying  a  leg 
twitch  above   the   hock.      Oxen  may  also  be   shod  in  an  ox 


Fig.  401.— Voigtland  shoe  for  oxen. 


travis — the  foot  being  secured  in  a  grooved  wooden  arm  and 
the  ox's  body  supported  by  a  sling. 

In  places  where  many  oxen  are  shod  a  travis  is  very  useful 
(fig.  402).  This  travis  consists  of  four  strong  posts  11 
feet  high  (of  which  o  feet  is  firmly  fixed  in  the  earth)  and 
8  inches  square  {aa,  hb),  fastened  'together  by  longitudinal 
and  transverse  stays  {cc,  d).  In  the  middle  of  the  two  front 
posts  is  the  head  post  (c)  of  equal  height  and  strength.  Five 
feet  above  the  gTound  this  is  provided  witli  an  aperture,  4 
inches  broad  and  20  high,  in  which  revolves  a  pulley  (i)  ;  below 
this  is  a  windlass  {Ic)  with  ratchet  and  pawl  for  the  purpose  of 
winding  up  the  rope  fastened  round  the  animal's  horns.  Each 
pair  of  posts  have,  on  their  front  or  back  surface,  a  deep  slot  about 
3  inches  broad  {n^  within  which  run  two  rails  (o  and^;),  capable 


424 


THE   SHOEING   OF  OXEN. 


of  being  raised  and  lowered  or  fastened  at  any  point  by  means 
of  iron  pins.  The  two  posts  to  the  right  are  provided  with  a 
revolving  eight-sided  axle,  to  one  end  of  which  is  attached  a 
ratchet  and  pawl.  On  one  of  the  eight  surfaces  of  this  axle 
are  six  iron  hooks,  to  which  the  belly  piece  can  be  attached. 


c 

eS 


CO 


o  a> 


5  to 


C3 


o 


O 


Opposite  the  axle  and  at  the  same  height  is  a  fixed  baulk  (/) 
with  six  hooks  {gg).  The  belly  piece,  6  feet  in  length  and  6 
inches  in  breadth,  carries  at  either  end  cords  1\  feet  in  length, 
provided  with  iron  rings  at  their  free  ends.      On  the  inner  side 


THE   OX   TRAVIS. 


425 


> 


'> 

O 


o 


426  THE   SHOEING   OF  OXEN. 

of  the  two  front  posts  is  a  neck  piece  (h)  and  breast  piece,, 
which  by  means  of  slots  and  iron  pins  may  be  raised  or  lowered. 
Each  of  the  two  hind  posts  has  at  the  back  an  iron  bearer  18 
inches  in  length  (s),  the  free  ends  of  which  carry  rings  6  inches 
across  {t).  Through  these  a  stout  rod,  padded  at  the  centre, 
may  be  thrust  and  fixed  by  two  pins.  Above  this  bearer  are 
two  iron  hooks  for  fixing  the  breeching. 

Before  the  animal  is  placed  in  the  travis  the  neck  piece  is 
raised,  the  breast  piece  depressed,  and  the  belly  piece  allowed 
to  hang  from  the  fixed  cross  piece.  The  animal  is  then  placed 
in  position,  a  rope  thrown  over  its  horns  and  the  end  passed 
over  the  pulley  {i)  fixed  to  the  hook  on  the  windlass  and  drawn 
up  sufficiently  tight  to  fix  the  head.  The  neck  piece  and 
breast  piece  are  then  respectively  lowered  and  raised,  the 
breeching  fastened  -to  the  point  marked  v  and  the  belly 
piece  attached  to  the  axle,  so  that  this  latter  may  be  drawn 
far  enough  up,  if  necessary,  to  completely  support  the  animal's 
weight. 

The  front  feet  durino;  shoeinii;  are  fastened  to  the  side  bars 
by  means  of  a  cord  attached  to  the  fetlock.  The  cord  is  passed 
a  few  times  round  the  bar  and  fixed  to  the  hook  {r).  The 
hind-feet  are  fastened  by  a  slip-knot  passed  round  the  fetlock 
and  drawn  up  over  the  cross  bar,  so  that  the  front  surface  of 
the  fetlock  lies  on  the  padded  part  of  the  bar,  the  foot  being 
fixed  in  this  position  by  passing  the  cord  a  number  of  times 
around  the  bar  and  there  knotting  it. 

When  no  travis  is  at  hand  one  may  be  improvised  out  of 
very  simple  materials,  as,  for  instance,  the  waggon  shown  in 
fig,  403.*  The  ox  is  fixed  by  the  head  to  the  side  of  the 
waggon  between  the  front  and  hind  wheel.  A  strong  bar  is 
then  slipped  under  one  hind  leg  and  between  the  axle  and 
upright  of  the  front  wheel ;  the  opposite  end  of  the  bar  is  then 
lifted  until  the  animal  is  thrown  somewhat  towards  the  other  side 
and  leans  heavily  on  the  pole.  The  pole  can  then  be  fastened 
to  the  waggon  by  means  of  a  rope  and  the  outer  leg  lifted  as 
usual.  In  this  way,  with  one  assistant  and  without  any  par- 
ticular difficulty,  the  most  troublesome  ox  can  be  controlled. 

*  Although  this  form  of  waggon  is  not  used  in  England  the  illustration  has 
been  inserted,  as,  with  its  assistance,  a  similar  travis  may  readily  be  improvised, 
though  necessarily  with  different  apj^aratus. 


o 
o 

n 

o 


o 
o 

o 


o 

l-H 

w 

02 

fed 

H 

pa 


To  face  f.  427.] 


APPENDIX    B. 


T.  FAT^PtlETJS'  TEACHING  SCHOOLS. 

The  farriers'  trade  in  England  being  still  open  to  all  comers, 
and  not  restricted,  as  in  Germany  and  certain  other  Conti- 
nental countries,  to  duly  instructed  and  certificated  persons, 
it  is  not  always  easy  to  induce  those  desiring  to  enter  its  ranks 
to  fully  qualify  themselves  for  their  life's  work.  Nor  indeed 
are  the  opportunities  afforded  them.  At  the  present  time  the 
old  system  of  apprenticeship  is  fast  dying  out,  and  we  cannot 
help  again  expressing  our  regret  that  the  Worshipful  Company 
of  Farriers  should  have  so  neglected  their  opportunities  as  to 
entirely  forego  the  exercise  of  the  powers  they  took  to  en- 
courage and  revive  it.  Apprenticeship  still  rei^resents  the 
only  system  under  which  youths  can  become  good  workmen. 
The  acquisition  of  a  few  half -understood  plirases  about  the 
anatomy  of  the  foot  is  of  no  value,  and  the  fullest,  knowledge 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  is  absolutely  useless  unless  conjoined 
with  a  thorough  mastery  of  the  craft,  and  that  education  of  the 
eye  and  hand  whicli  only  comes  by  years  of  steady  practice 
under  a  master's  supervision. 

It  is  a  fact,  w^e  believe,  that  at  the  present  time  no  school, 
competent  to  convey  this  instruction,  exists  in  England.  But 
for  those  who  have  already  made  some  progress  two  public 
bodies  at  least,  viz.,  the  Berkshire  County  Council  and  the  Bath 
and  West  of  England  Agricultural  Society,  have  provided  much 
needed  assistance  by  instituting  travelling  scliools.  A  photo- 
graph of  the  Berkshire  County  Councils  School,  with  the 
demonstrator  and  class,  forms  the  frontispiece  to  this  volume, 
and  another  view,  show^ing  the  van,  etc.,  is  given  here.  The 
van  contains  two  fires,   witli   anvils,    vices,  and  all  necessary 


428  farriers'  teaching  schools. 

appliances.  The  demonstrator  is  a  man  of  proved  ability,  and 
is  supervised  and  assisted  by  a  member  of  the  Eoyal  College 
of  Veterinary  Surgeons,  who  delivers  a  course  of  lectures  on  the 
anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  foot.  As  stated,  instruction  is 
not  given  to  beginners,  but  only  to  those  already  possessing  a 
fair  knowledge  of  the  trade.  In  the  cases  of  the  West  of 
England  Association,  the  course  consists  of  ten  lectures,  for 
which  a  fee  of  2s.  6d.  is  charged.  The  classes  contain  four 
pupils  each,  and  as  tliese  cannot  always  attend  on  consecutive 
nights,  two  classes  are  formed  and  receive  instruction  on 
alternate  nights.     Instruction  begins  at  6  I'.M. 

The  pupils  are  shown  the  correct  methods  of  shoeing  every 
kind  of  horse  they  are  likely  to  meet  with,  and  how  to  adapt 
shoes  to  abnormal  feet.  A  typical  collection  of  shoes  and 
hoofs  is  always  on  exhibition  at  the  school.  In  addition  to  the 
apparatus  contained  in  the  van,  the  Society  provides  all 
necessary  tools  and  appliances  for  pupils'  use. 

In  the  practical  course  the  pupils  work  in  pairs,  each  pupil 
making  one  or  more  shoes,  which  are  examined  and  criticised 
by  the  instructor,  who  points  out  the  defects  and  the  methods 
of  avoiding  or  remedying  them.  Sometimes  it  is  even  necessary 
to  show  the  pupil  how  to  handle  his  tools  so  as  to  obtain  the 
best  results. 

The  first  shoes  made  are  usually  fore  and  hind  cart,  and 
the  pupil  gradually  passes  on,  as  he  becomes  adept,  to  the 
making  of  riding  and  carriage  horse  shoes,  concave  fullered 
shoes,  bar  shoes,  '  dub-toed '  shoes,  '  cradled '  shoes,  '  set-heeled  ' 
shoes, '  diamond- toed '  hind  shoes,  and  in  fact  every  kind  of  patho- 
logical shoe. 

One  or  two  e\'enings  a  week  are  usually  set  aside  for  shoeing 
such  horses  as  can  be  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood,  when 
instruction  is  given  in  handling  animals,  picking  up  feet,  taking 
off  shoes,  preparing  feet  for  shoeing,  and  (after  making  satis- 
factory shoes)  nailing-on. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that,  despite  the  public- 
spirited  efforts  of  our  County  Councils  and  Agricultural  Societies, 
England  is  still  far  behind  Continental  countries  in  providing 
technical  education  for  farriers,  and  it  is  greatly  to  be  desired 
either  that  a  stimulus  be  given  to  the  system  of  apprentice- 
ship, or  that  proper  teaching  schools  for  farriers  (which  could 


THE  CURRICULUM.  429 

be  attached  to  the  Veterinary  and  Agricultural  Schools)  be 
instituted.  In  London,  the  excessive  pressure  of  work  and  the 
introduction  of  machine-made  shoes  and  nails  have  dealt  a 
death-blow  to  '  skill '  of  the  highest  kind.  Shop-boys  graduate 
into  doormen  in  the  course  of  a  couple  of  years  without  having 
seen,  much  less  practised,  one  half  of  their  craft ;  and  were  it 
not  for  the  constant  influx  of  country  workmen  into  the 
Metropolis,  efficient  doormen,  capable  at  a  pinch  of  fitting  or 
making  a  shoe,  would  cease  to  exist. 


II.  SHOEING  COMPETITIONS. 

For  competitions  at  shows  teniporary  sheds  are  required, 
and  the  arrangement  of  forges,  stands,  and  enclosures  for  the 
public  requires  some  care  and  forethought.  The  Plan  here- 
with shows  one  method  of  utilising  a  space  about  70  feet 
square,  and  obviates  the  necessity  for  a  long  description. 

The  sheds  are  formed  of  skeleton  wooden  frames  covered 
with  canvas,  except  in  the  case  of  those  containing  the  forges, 
where  wood  should  be  used  for  the  sides  and  corrugated  iron 
for  the  roof,  to  avoid  the  chance  of  ignition  by  a  flue  becoming 
overheated  or  of  sparks  flying  from  the  anvils.  The  stalls  for 
horses  should  be  floored  with  wood,  and,  to  protect  the  workers 
in  case  of  rain,  roofed  with  canvas  (see  Plan) ;  in  very  wet 
weather  a  layer  of  sawdust  spread  on  the  floor  will  be  found 
to  prevent  horses  or  men  slipping.  A  stout  wooden  rail 
should  be  provided  at  the  end  furthest  from  the  anvils,  to  which 
the  horses  can  be  fastened. 

The  open  ends  of  sheds  containing  the  anvils  should,  if 
possible,  look  towards  the  north,  so  ns  to  secure  a  good  light 
without  the  sun  shining  in  the  face  of  the  fireman. 

A  stand  for  the  public  will  be  found  of  advantage,  as  many 
persons  interested  in  the  competitions  do  not  care  to  be  jostled 
by  the  crowd  which  usually  collects  on  these  occasions,  and 
will  gladly  pay  a  small  sum  for-  ihe  privilege  of  a  seat. 

Competitors  should  be  required  to  bring  their  own  tools 
and  nails,  and  to  provide  a  striker,  but  the  show  connnittee 
should    find    everything  else.      An   experienced  farrier   should 


430  SHOEING    COMrETITIONS. 

be  ill  atteiidauce  to  keep  tlie  tires  going  when  not  in  use,  and 
to  clean  out  the  sheds. 

There  are  generally  two  classes,  nags  and  heavy  horses. 
TJie  horses  lequired  should  be  carefully  selected  by  the 
stewards  or  judges  the  day  previous  to  the  competition,  care 
being  taken  to  provide  animals  fairly  representing  each  class, 
and  to  exclude  those  with  broken  or  defective  feet,  or  which 
are  known  to  be  ditticult  to  shoe. 

On  the  day  of  the  competition  neither  members  of  the 
public  nor  competitors  should  be  allowed  access  to  the  animals 
until  work  actually  l)egins,  otherwise  the  '  old  hands,'  if  they 
see  a  horse  with  bad  feet,  will  hold  back  and  so  delay  progress. 

Xumbers  haviiiir  been  attached  to  each  horse's  mane  or 
halter,  a  corresponding  series  is  drawn  by  the  competitors,  each 
of  whom  afterwards  takes  the  horse  thus  assigned  him.  The 
men  are  then  assembled,  and  the  steward  in  charge  recites  the 
conditions  of  the  competition,  and  explains  that  each  man  must 
be  prepared  to  start  when  called  on,  failing  which  he  will  be 
put  last  on  the  list  or  disqualitied.  The  judge  or  judges  may 
add  a  few  words,  and  should  claim  the  right  to  stop  any  com- 
petitor at  any  stage  without  assigning  to  him  a  reason.  All 
preparations  being  complete,  the  men's  numbers  are  suspended 
above  the  shoeing  sheds  (a  common  practice  is  to  take  odd  and 
even  numbers  alternately),  the  horses  are  brought  from  the 
stable,  and  work  commences.  Men  who  have  tinished  should 
at  once  return  to  their  room,  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  walk- 
about or  in  anv  wav  interfere  with  those  at  work. 

The  competitor  is  usually  asked  to  make  a  fore  and  a  hind 
shoe,  and  to  put  on  the  fore  shoe  in  a  given  time.  In  the  greater 
number  of  instances  this  is  a  sufficient  test,  but,  as  shown  by 
the  appended  form  of  marking-book,  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
require  the  hind  shoe  also  to  be  nailed  on.  Most  judges 
prefer  to  divide  the  operations  into  three  parts:  (1)  Taking 
off  shoe  and  preparing  foot ;  (2)  Making  shoe  ;  (3)  Fitting  and 
nailing-on.  The  question  of  time  is  of  minor  importance, 
thou  oh  the  total  time  allowed  should  not  be  exceeded.  In  a 
close  competition  the  saving  of  a  few  minutes  may  serve  to 
mark  out  the  winner.  The  svstem  of  marking  varies.  Some 
judges  use  numbers,  others  terms,  like  fair,  good,  very  good, 
etc.     It  is  difficult  to  sav   which  is  the  better.     It   is  very 


CONDUCT   OF  THE   COMPETITION.  431 

difficult  to  judge  to  one  point,  and  we  suspect  that  in  most 
■cases  judges  make  tlieir  awards  less  by  the  strict  reading  of 
their  notes  than  by  the  general  impression  derived  from  watch- 
ing the  competitor.  Numbers  awarded  at  any  early  stage  may 
be  quite  discounted  by  some  glaring  error  connnitted  later. 
We  refrain  from  oftering  further  suggestions  on  the  matter  of 
judging,  as  the  very  fact  of  a  person  occupying  the  position 
of  judge  presupposes  him  possessed  of  a  full  and  intimate 
knowledge   of   the   technique  of   liorse-shoeing. 


432 


SHOEING   COMPETITIONS. 


O 


H 
O 

o 

I— I 

o 
W 


72 

Remarks. 

Oral. 

S 

- 

Nailing  on 
Shoes, 

Hind. 

CD 
0 

M 

0 

a 
.1—1 

• 

• 
CD 

0 

0 

• 

0 

Taking  off  Shoes 

and  ])reparing 

Feet. 

0 
P=^ 

1 

6 

o 

o 

PQ 

6 

l-H 

PS 

03 

»-» 
o 

o 


(     433     ) 


GROUND  PLAN  OF  BUILDINGS  REQUIRED  FOR  SHOEING 
COMPETITION.     GROUND  24  YARDS  SQUARE. 

Scale  J  inch  to  the  yard. 


REFERENCE  TO  NUMBERS   ON  PLAN. 


q 

L 

1  10 

1  " 

1 

2 

4 

5 

6 

7 

3^ 

f20 

21 

\ 

/ 

22 

_^ 

25 

24- 

25 

26 

^s  r\ 

Zl 

27 

29 

29 

///T  mca 

21 

//^jT  l#7^f 

1  ^®    I 

3  FT.  WIDE                   29                         SFT,  WtOE 

30 

31 

30 

1.  Doorway,  4  ft.  wide,  leading  to 
stabling  for  horses. 

2.  Competitors'  room,  16  ft,  by  15 
ft. 

3.  4,  5,  and  6.  Blacksmiths'  shops, 
9  ft.  wide. 

7.  Judges'  and  Stewards'  room,  16 
ft.  by  15  ft. 

8,  9,   10,  and  11.    Forges,  3  yards 
square. 

12,  13,  14,  and  15.  Anvils. 
16,   17,   18,   and   19.    Benches  and 
vices. 

20.  Doorway,  3  ft.  wide. 

21.  Doorway,  3  ft.  wide. 


22.  Space  for  Judges,  9  ft.  wide. 

23,  24,  25,  and  26.  Shoeing  sheds, 
8  ft.  wide,  7  ft.  6  in.  high  to  eaves, 
and  12  ft.  long,  boarded  up  to  4  ft. 
6  in.  at  front,  and  with  wooden  Hoors. 

27.  Space  between  shoeing  sheds  and 
standing  place  for  public,  9  ft.  wide 
all  round  as  shown. 

28.  Drop  rail,  for  admitting  to  shoe- 
ing sheds  and  smiths'  shops,  3  ft.  6  in. 
high. 

29.  vStanding  room  for  ])ublic. 

30.  Grand  stand  for  public,  18  ft. 
wide. 

31.  Entrance,  6  ft.  wide. 

2e 


INDEX 


ADVANCiyG  FOOT,  method  of,  182. 
AluTuinium  shoes,  132. 
Ancients  unacquainted  with  horse-shoe- 
ing, 3. 
Anti-concussive  mechanism  of  limb,  112. 
Arteries  of  foot,  54. 
Asses,  shoeing  of,  310. 

"  Back,"  making  a,  142. 
Bare-foot,  working,  210. 
Bar  shoes,  special,  324-327. 
Bars  of  foot,  70,  77. 

,,    angle  of,  77. 

,,    relations  and  extent  of,  78. 
"  Binding,"  a  cause  of  lameness,  380. 
Blood-vessels,  description  of,  52. 
Bones  of  foot,  24. 

The  great  metacarpus,  24, 

The  sufifraginis  bone  or  1st  phalanx, 
24. 

The  sesamoid  bones,  26. 

The  coronet  bone  or  2nd  phalanx,  27. 

The  pedal  bone  or  3rd  phalanx,  28. 

The  navicular  bone,  30. 
Bulbs,  cellular,  of  foot,  49. 

Calkins,  147. 

,,        disadvantages  of,  215. 
"  Canker  "  of  the  frog  or  sole,  400. 

,,  special   shoes   for    dressing, 

383-385,  401,  402. 
Capillaries,  description  of,  53. 
Capped  elbow,  shoe  for,  413. 
Carriage    horses,    general    remarks    on 

shoeing,  236. 
,,  ,,        special      shoes      for, 

241-243. 
Cart  horses,  general  remarks  on  shoeing, 
247. 
,,         ,,      special  shoes  for,  249-252. 
Cartilage,  description  of,  45. 

,,         lateral,  46. 
Celtic  shoes,  5. 

Changing  the  style  of  shoeing,  264. 
Charlier  shoe  and  system,  254. 

,,        tip,  258. 
Cogs,  fro.st,  164. 
Competitions,  shoeing,  429. 


5> 
J  J 
5> 


Competitions,  ground  plan  of  buildings 
for,  433. 
,,  judge's  book  for,  432. 

Concussion,  how  it  is  neutralised,  113. 
Conformation  of  foot,  179. 

„  limbs  (fore),  172. 

„      (hind),  177. 
Contraction  of  heels,  340. 

predisposing  causes, 

343. 
exciting  causes,  345. 
treatment,  347,  359. 
mechanical       treat- 
ment, 350. 
,,    De  Fay's   shoe  for, 

350. 
, ,    Hartman  n's  expand- 
ing shoes  for,  350. 
,,    Einsiedel's  shoe  for, 
351. 
foot,  special  shoes,  etc.  for, 
353,  354. 
,,     operation  for,  355. 
,,     weak  heels,  356. 
,,  ,,     local,  357. 

Control  of  horse,  197. 
Corium,  61. 

Corn,  titting  shoe  for,  322. 
Corns,  387. 

,,       microscopical    changes    in    Avail 

after,  388. 
,,       varieties  of,  389. 
,,       special  shoes  for,  393-395. 
Coronary  band,  68. 

,,       '   plexus,  58. 
Cracks,  transverse,  of  wall,  372. 
Curb,  shoes  for,  410,  411. 
Curvature,  lateral,  of  hoof,  363. 
Cutigeral  groove,  81. 
Cutting  or  striking,  general  remarks  on, 

286. 
,,  ,,         special    shoes     for, 

288-300. 
boots  for,  291. 
Delperier's  remedy 

for,  291. 
weighted  shoes  for, 
291. 


>> 

>} 


j> 


436 


INDEX. 


Development    of    hoof,    periods    in, 
101. 

Direction    of    horn    cells    in    different 
structures,  98. 

Disadvantages  of  shoeing,  278. 

Disease  of  feet  and  limbs  due  to  concus- 
sion, 280. 

Distortion,  lateral,  of  hoof,  360. 

Dorsal  Hexion  of  fetlock,  118. 

"Dropped "sole,  333. 

,,     special  shoes  for,  334, 
335. 


>i 


Early  German  shoes,  12. 
Einsiedel's,  von,  winter  shoe,  157. 
Elastic  tissues  of  foot,  45. 

,,      tissue,  description  of,  45. 
Epidermis,  61. 

Examination    of    horse  after   shoeing, 
277. 
,,  prior  to  shoeing,  199. 

Expansion  of  hoof,    early    experiments 

on,  117. 
general  conclusions 
on,  117. 


)} 


Farriers'  schools,  16,  427. 
Fire,  farrier's,  142. 
Fitting  the  shoe,  265. 

,,      to  normal  feet,  267. 
,,      for     irregular    confor- 
mation    of     limbs, 
268. 
,,  ,,      for  rapid  work,  270. 

,,  ,,      for      heavy      draught 

horses,  270. 
Fitzwy gram's  (Sir  F.)  shoe,  260. 
Flat  sole,  330. 

,,       ,,    shoe  for,  330. 
Foot-axis,  181,  208. 
Foot,  bones  of,  see  "Bones." 
,,    conformation  of,  179. 
,,    definition  of,  20. 
,,    structure  of,  20. 
,,     ligaments  of,  see  "Ligaments." 
Forging,  general  remarks  on,  282. 

,,         special  shoes  for,  284-286. 
Forging  the  shoe,  140. 
,,        a  fore  shoe,  143. 
,,        a  hind  shoe,  144. 
,,        a  bar  shoe,  146. 
Form,  changes  in,  of  hoof,  ^115. 
Frog,  sensitive,  51,  72. 

,,      horny,,88. 
Frog-stay,  88. 
Frost  cogs,  164. 
,,     nails,  155. 
,,     stubs,  155. 
,,     screws,  158. 
Fullering,  136. 

Functions,  mechanical,  of  hoof.  111. 
,,  of  foot,  90. 


5  > 


Function  of  sensitive  wall,  theories  of, 
110. 

Glands,  sebaceous,  63. 
Groove,  cutigeral,  81. 
Growth    of   horn,    influence    of    nerve 
supply  on,  102. 

Hacks,  general  remarks  on  shoeing,  217. 

,,        special  shoes  for,  218,  219- 
Hair,  growth  of,  62. 
Hardening  the  hoof,  ancient  methods  of, 

3. 
Heels  of  shoe,  length  of,  212. 
Hipposandals,  4. 
Histology  of  horn,  93. 
History  of  horse-shoeing,  2. 
Hoof,  form  and  ])roportions  of,  185. 
,,      sound,  characteristics  of,  191. 
,,      rings  on,  significance  of,  192. 
,,     wear  of,  193. 

,,     ointments,  action  and  composition 
of,  314. 
Horn,  histology  of,  93. 

tubes  or  fibres,  94. 

cells,  96. 

cells,   directions  of,    in  difl'erent 

structures,  98. 
physical  and  chemical  properties 

of,  99. 
pigment,  99. 
constitution  of,  100, 
growth  of,  103. 
substitutes  for,  328. 
,,       De  Fay's  artificial,  328. 
, ,       tumours,  or  keratomata,  390, 398. 
,,      frog,  how  formed,  65. 
,,      sole,  how  formed,  65. 
„       wall,  74. 
,,         ,,     division  into    toe,   quarter, 

heel,  etc.,  75. 
,,         ,,     thickness  of,  76. 
Horse  nails,  272. 
Horse-shoeing  a  science  and  an  art,  1. 

,,  ,,       objects  of,  2. 

Horse-shoes,  characters  of,  133. 
form  of,  133. 
breadth  and  thickness   of, 

134. 
surfaces    and    borders    of, 
135. 

,,  machine-made,  151. 

"  Huflederkitt,"  328. 
Hunters,  general  remarks  on  shoeing, 
220. 
,,         special  shoes  for,  223-228. 

Inflammation  within  the  hoof,  316. 

,,  ,,     symptoms 

of,  317. 

,,  ,,  ,,      treatment 

of,  319. 


if 

J  > 


>» 


INDEX. 


437 


Irregular   conformation ,    fitting 
shoes  for,  268. 

Joint,  ginglymoid,   definition   of, 

fetlock.  33. 
pastern,  37. 
pedal  or  cofiin,  38. 
Joint  oil,  32. 

KER  ATOM  ATA,  390,  398. 
Knife,  Arabian,  204. 
*'        drawing,  203. 
''Knuckling  over"  at  fetlock,  339. 
"  special     shoes 

for,  338,  339. 

Laced-on  shoes.  222. 
Lacuna?  of  frog,  78. 
Lacuna,  median,  of  frog,  89. 
Lameness  from  shoeing,  statistics 

of,  279. 
Laminae,  sensitive,  70. 

length    of     at    various 

points.  71. 
horn,  82. 
number  of,  84. 
breadth  of,  etc.,  84. 
secondary,  95. 
Laminal  plexus.  57. 
Laminitis,  shoeing  after,  396. 
Leather  soles,  301. 
Ligaments  of  the  foot,  32. 

fetlock  joint,  33. 

suspensory       o  r 

superior     sesa- 

moidean.  35. 

'*  jmstern  joint.  37. 

coffin  joint.  38. 

Limbs,  conformation  of  (fore),  172. 

(hind),  177 
Loose  wall,  372. 
Lymphatics,  description  of,  53. 

Material  for  shoes,  129. 
Mechanical  functions  of  hoof.  111. 
Mechanism,     anti-concussive,     of 

limb,  112. 
Middle-ages,  shoes  of  the,  8. 
Moving,  how  hoof  is  advanced  in, 

182. 
Mules,  shoeing  of,  310. 

Nail-holes,  188. 

Nail-holes,  "coarse"'  and    "fine," 

138. 
Nailing  on  the  shoe,  directions  for, 

273. 
Nails,"  272. 
Navicular  disease,  407. 

"      gait  in,  408. 


<i 


Navicular  disease, symptoms  of  .408 

"       shoeing  for,  409. 

Nerve     supply,   influence    of,    on 

growth  of  horn,  102. 
Nerves  of  foot,  59. 

Omnibus  horses,  general  remarks 

on  shoeing,  244. 
special  shoes  for, 
245,  246. 
Oriental  shoe,  261. 
Ox,  anatomy  of  foot,  415. 
"   shoeing  of.  422. 
"   -travis,  423. 
"   -travis,  improvised,  425. 

Pace,   its    influence    on  wear    of 

hoof,  103. 
Pads,. rubber,  301. 

Downie's,  304, 
Hartmann's,  305. 
rope,  307. 
"     straw,  307. 
"      cork.  308. 
"      felt.  308. 
"      elastic  cement,  309. 
Periople,  79. 

' '        how  formed,  66. 
Perioplic  ring,  67. 

"  "      inflammation    of, 

386. 
Phosphor  bronze  shoes,  133. 
"Picked-up"  nails,  381. 
Plaited  soles  used  in  Japan,  4. 
Plantar  cushion,  48. 

"  "        venous  plexus  of , 

59. 
Plexus,  laminal,  57. 
"        coronary,  58. 
' '        venous, of  plantar  cushion, 
59. 
Pedometer,  216. 

Prepnring  hoof  for  shoeing,  202. 
Pricks  in  shoeing,  378. 

causes  of,  379. 
"        treatment    of, 
380. 
"  Pumiced  "  sole   331. 
Pus,  coMr  of,  important,  321. 

Race-horses,  general  remarks  on 
shoeing,  229. 
si^Mcial    shoes    for, 
231. 
Railway  shunting  horses,  special 

shoes  for,  253. 
Removing  the  old  shoes,  199. 
Rings  on  hoof,  192. 
"  Rodwav"  bar  iron,  130. 
"Rolled  bars,"  130. 
"Rolling"  the  toe,  267. 


u 


(i 


438 


■1? 


INDEX. 


Rope-inlaid  shoes,  263. 
Roughing,  153. 
Rough-nails,  154. 

"  "       Delperiers,  155. 

Rubber  soles,  301. 

Sandcrack,  definition  of,  365. 
"  treatment  of,  366. 

*'  coronary,  369. 

"  of  bars,  371. 

'*  at  ground  surface,  372. 

Scandinavian  "broddar,"  9. 
Schools,  farriers',  427. 
Screws,  frost,  158. 
"  Searching  "  the  foot,  318,  379. 
Sebaceous  glands,  63. 
Secondary  laminae,  95. 
Seedy  toe,  372. 
Sensitive  laminae,  70. 

"        sole,  72. 
Shaping  the  shoe,  265, 
"Sharpened"    heels     (roughing), 

157. 
Sheath,  middle  of  wall,'  80. 

"        laminal  or  connecting  of 
wall,  82. 
Shod  hoof,  care  of  the,  313. 
Shoe,  wear  of,  194. 

"     choice  of ,  210. 
Shoeing,  disadvantages  of,  278. 
Shoes,  material  for,  129. 
Shunting  horses  (railway),  special 

shoes  for,  253. 
Side-bone,  402. 

"         statistics  of  occurrence, 

403. 
"  precautions  in  shoeing 

for,  406. 
Skin,  description  of,  61. 
Sole,  horn,  84. 

Soles,  leather  and  rubber  (see  also 

"Pads,"),  301 
uses  of.  301. 
"  "  di  sad  van- 

tages of,  302 
Spanner   or  screw-key   for   frost- 
screws,  163. 
Strained  tendons, shoes  for,  411-413 
Structure  of  foot,  20. 


Style  of  shoeing,  choosing  the,  199 
Surgical  dressing,  shoes   for,  382- 

385. 
Synovia  or  joint  oil,  32. 

Taps,  for  frost-screws,  162. 
Temporary  shoes,  222. 
Tendon  of  extensor  pedis,  41. 

' '        of  flexor  pedis  perf oratus, 

41. 
*•  *'  "      perforans, 

42. 
Thrush,  375. 

*'         dressing  for,  323. 
Tips,  description  and  applicability 
of,  256. 
"     Charlier.  258. 
Toe-grips,  148,  167. 
Tools,  fireman's,  141. 

"      doorman's,  203. 
"Treads"  on  the  coronet,  386. 
Trotting  horses,  general   remarks 

on  shoeing,  2^2. 
"  special  shoes  for, 

233-235. 
Turkish  shoe,  261. 

Unshod  hoofs,  treatment  of,  312. 
Upright  hoof,  336. 

Veins  of  foot,  57. 

Vicious  horses,  control  of,  197. 

Volar  flexion  of  fetlock,  118. 

Wall  of  hoof,  how  formed,  64. 
"       the  three  layers  or  sheaths 

of,  79. 
"       sensitive ;     theories    of    its 
function,  110. 

Wear,  descent,  falling  or  exten- 
sion, 195. 

Wear,  ascent,  lifting  or  flexion,  195 

Wear  of  hoof,  influence  of  pace  on, 
103. 

Weight,  liow  distributed  in  foot,  174 

"White  line,"  86. 

Winter  shoe,  Count  von  Einsidel's, 
157. 

Wood-inlaid  shoes,  264. 


Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
Cummings  Scliooi  of  Veterinary  IVIedicine  at 
Tufts  University 
200  Westboro  Road 
Nortli  Grafton.  IVIA  01536 


